The Origin and Nature of Man

Buddhism: One creation myth explains that at the end of each cyclical dissolution of the universe, certain brahma deities from Rupa-dhatu (the “realm of form” just above the physical world) are attracted by the recreation of the earth. “As the waters that are left from the old cataclysm start to coagulate below them…these brahma deities gradually descend into the lower realms and eventually become the first inhabitants of the new earth.”[1] All subsequent human beings then descend from them, giving to all mankind what could be considered a divine origin.

     Unique to Buddha’s teaching is the idea that men have no souls (the doctrine of anatta). Rather, there are five aggregates (skandhas) that make up the human personality—the physical form (rupa), feelings (vedana), perception (sanna), dispositions or mental formations (sankhara), and consciousness (vinnana). These are impermanent and only temporarily connected to each other. In the process of reincarnation, no soul passes from one body to the next. Rather, these “aggregates” are disassembled and reformed to make a new living being. (See the explanation of “Nirvana” under The Spiritual Journey and the Ultimate Destiny of Man.)

Christianity: The Bible teaches that on the sixth day of creation, God created the first man, Adam, out of the dust and breathed into him the breath of life. He then placed Adam in a deep sleep, removed one of his ribs and made Eve, the first woman. Apparently, man was created last because he is the highest expression of God’s creative genius-being in the “image” and “likeness” of God-and all other created things were merely preparations for man. (Genesis 1-2) Adam and Eve were placed in the Garden of Eden where there were two significant trees: the Tree of Life and the Tree of the Knowledge of Good and Evil. The foreparents of the human race fell when the Serpent (Satan) seduced them to ignore God’s commandment and partake of the “Tree of the Knowledge of Good and Evil.” They were then exiled from the Garden of Eden and denied access to the Tree of Life. The calamity of death, both natural and spiritual, came on the whole human race as a result. (See Romans 5:12-21.)

Concerning the nature of man, he is a tripartite being consisting of body, soul and spirit. (See 1 Thessalonians 5:23.) The body is the abode of the senses and natural passions. The soul is the abode of the mind, will and emotions. The spirit, in its original perfect state, was the abode of conscience, intuition and communion with God. However, prior to the experience of being born again, human beings are described as being “dead in trespasses and sins.” (Ephesians 2:1) Because of this inherited state of spiritual death and separation from God, the functions of the spirit have been drastically reduced or eliminated altogether. Communion with God is no longer possible (unless initiated by the Creator himself). Intuition is restricted primarily to lesser, non-spiritual insights (intellectual, scientific, artistic, literary, etc.). True intuitive knowledge about God is rare, especially in any kind of depth. Conscience is the primary part of the spirit that remained functional after the fall of man, though it, too, has been defiled by sin and is, therefore, undependable. (See Titus 1:15.) The conscience is the guardian of the soul. It is not the presence of God within a person, but an inward sense of what is morally wrong and morally right, normally influencing a person toward what is morally right.

Once regenerated, the spirit experiences, or has the capacity of experiencing, restored communion with God, the higher levels of intuition and a cleansed conscience. Spirituality then manifests in a person according to the level of consecration. The flesh enables men to be ‘world-conscious.’ The soul enables men to be ‘self-conscious.’ The spirit enables men to be God-conscious (conscious of the reality of God).¹ Christianity does not teach that man has a higher universal ‘Self.’ Man is a separate entity from God; he is not God in expression, nor does he ever become God. Man is born into this world with a sinful nature, having inherited the same from Adam (termed by some theologians as the doctrine of ‘Original Sin’-Psalm 51:5, Romans 5:19). Although man has been greatly distanced from the full glory of his identity in the dawn of creation, he is still, to a limited degree, in the “image” and “likeness” of God. (Genesis 1:26-27) Some Christian theologians insist that man is bipartite, possessing only a body and a soul.

1 This reference to ‘God-consciousness’ does not means, as it is often used, the awakened awareness of a person’s higher Self as God. In a Christian, biblical context, it merely means an awakened awareness of the reality of God and the possibility of relationship with him, as opposed to the spiritual dullness of being a ‘flesh-ruled’ person.

Confucianism: Teaches that man is innately good and noble. “The nature of man is good.” “The tendency of man’s nature to good is like the tendency of water to run downwards.”(Mencius 6.1.1.2)¹ “All are good at first. But few prove themselves to be so at the last.”(Shi King 3.3.1.1.7-8)² Confucius taught that there is more to man than just his physical body. He insisted, “Such is the evidence of things invisible that it is impossible to doubt the spiritual nature of man.” (Doctrine of the Mean 16)

Hinduism: Concerning the origin of man, the Bhagavatam shares the following explanation: “Brahma’s first human creations were saints, who, immediately upon being created fell into deep meditation, finding no interest in the things of the world. Thus, through them, Brahma saw no possibility of propagation of their species. While he was meditating upon what course he should pursue, his own form divided itself, one half became man and the other half became woman. The man was called Manu, and the woman Shatarupa, and from them have sprung all mankind.”¹ So man is considered, not a creaton of God, but an emanation of God. At the beginning of every secondary cycle another Manu appears to become the father of the human race.

Concerning the nature of man, numerous theories are found in Hinduism. The following seems to be the most dominant and accepted. Man is made up of three primary bodies or ‘sheaths’ (sharira) that surround the atman (the real Self): (1) The gross body-sthula-sharira, also called annamaya kosha; (2) The subtle body-sukshma-sharira, also called linga-sharira, and; (3) The causal body-karana-sharira, identical with anandamaya-kosha.² The subtle body is subdivided further into three parts: the vital sheath (pranamaya-kosha), the mental sheath (manomaya-kosha), and the intellectual sheath (vijnanamaya-kosha). So altogether there are five ‘sheaths’ or bodies in which the atman is contained (a viewpoint expressed in the Taittiriya Upanishad). The subtle body is the means by which the atman passes from one life to the next on its journey toward perfection. The causal body contains the ‘idea template’-the spiritual blueprint for the subtle and gross bodies. Some sources say that the causal body is also divided into three parts, bringing the total number of ‘bodies’ to seven.

The atman (Sanskrit meaning “God within”) is the true Self, the higher Self. It is eternal, uncreated, without gender, pure, unchanging, indestructible, omniscient, omnipotent and omnipresent. It cannot feel pain and it does not evolve. This divine essence is within every living thing: plant, animal and human. These variations are not differences in the atman itself, but in the degree it manifests in a physical form. When dwelling in a human body, it erroneously identifies itself with the flesh body, the mind and the intellect, until a person’s consciousness is awakened. Then the atman rules a person’s existence.

A primary doctrine that pervades much of Hinduism is the perception that atman, the individual soul, is actually Brahman, the universal Soul. Often quoted is the passage out of the Chandogya Upanishad in which Uddalaka admonishes his son, Svetaketu: “The subtle essence is universally diffused in all things wherever found. It is the true Self; and, Svetaketu, that thou art (tat twam asi)!”

Conflicting interpretations of this passage exist within the camp of Hinduism itself. Sankara, an eighth century Hindu philosopher, believed this statement indicates atman and Brahman are identical. Ramanuja, an eleventh century Hindu teacher, insisted it infers atman and Brahman are inseparable, but not identical.

When the atman becomes personalized and individualized, it is referred to as the jiva (pronounced jee’va, meaning “that which lives”). This is the embodied atman, the individual personality that wrongly identifies with the physical form and the mind. As the human ego, it imparts a fallacious sense of duality (distinction between God and man) that keeps the jiva bound to the cycle of birth and death. The atman transcends time, space, causality, name and form, but these five things bind the jiva. This condition is only a temporary illusion on the way to the final destiny of atman (the true Self) merging into oneness with Brahman. Jivas are infinite in number.

Everything in the manifest world is comprised of the three gunas: sattva, rajas and tamas. When it relates to the evolutionary development of human beings, sattva concerns that part of our inherent nature that is veiled and must be realized; tamas is what hinders that realization; rajas is the energy or force that overcomes tamas. Tamas is laziness, unconcern and the dullness of the sense-bound human mind; rajas is passion, zeal and holy action that overcomes tamas to attain the sattva of serenity and understanding. Sattva is goodness and harmony. It is not cosmic consciousness, but it leads a person to the boundary of this ultimate state of being.

Final liberation happens after many incarnations, with the circumstances of each incarnation determined by karma from previous lives. Karma attaches itself to the subtle body. Karma is comprised of merits (punya) or demerits (papa) that result from every action. There are sixteen basic elements of the physical body; nineteen elements of the subtle body, which correspond to the thirty-five basic idea-elements of the causal body.

• Note on the caste system of Hinduism: In discussing various beliefs concerning the nature of man, this subject should not be overlooked. In the Laws of Manu (an ancient Hindu text) society is divided into four main castes (varnas)-Brahmins (priests), Kshatriyas (nobles), Vaisyas (merchants and farmers) and Sudras (manual laborers, peasants and servants). These originated from four parts of the body of Brahma. (See Rig Veda 10:90,12.) The Brahmin priestly caste proceeded from Brahma’s head, the Kshatriyas from his arms, the Vaisyas from his thighs and the Sudras from his feet. Far beneath the Sudras are the ‘untouchables’ (Harijans) who were rejects from the social order altogether. (Mahatma Ghandi preferred to call them the “Children of God.”) These four main castes are divided into various sub-castes (around 3,000). Each of these divisions determines a certain status and duty in life.

When this social order is strictly observed, the castes do not intermarry or even eat with each other. In 1949 Ghandi and others persuaded the Indian Parliament to make this practice illegal. Nevertheless, some still live according to this standard, believing it to be divinely inspired. (In Hindu Scripture Krishna declares, “The four castes were created by me.” Bhagavad-Gita 4:13)

The caste system has been a subject of great controversy, even within the camp of Far Eastern religions. Buddha was appalled at this doctrine. Mahavira, the founder of Jainism, and Guru Nanak, founder of Sikhism, were both born in the second caste, yet they arose to become noted spiritual leaders. Both of them repudiated this concept, teaching that society should be casteless and that all people have equal value. Some Hindus compromise the unyielding imposition of this doctrine, teaching that a person’s caste is determined, not by the social status inherited at birth, but by personal choice or personal accomplishment. Thus, any person can be positioned in any caste according to his own intellectual, emotional, spiritual and/or social development.

• Note on the Yoga School within Hinduism: Yoga is one of the main schools of thought within Hinduism. In many groups that promote the practice of yoga, human beings are described as possessing spiritual energy centers called chakras. Though there are some different views promoted by various yogis and swamis, it is generally believed that there are seven main chakras, five of which are positioned along the spinal column. The sixth is the ‘third eye’ and the seventh, the ‘crown chakra’ located at the crown of the skull. The third eye (in the middle of the forehead) is described as one of the main gateways out of the body into the astral realm. Each chakra is associated with a different deity. When the kundalini (the latent deposit of divine energy at the base of the spine) is ‘awakened,’ this energy travels upward through the chakras. Upon reaching the crown chakra, God consciousness is attained. According to the Sankhya Yoga School, there are two main aspects to man: the self (purusha) bound inside of a body of matter (prakriti).

Islam: Though accepting a slightly altered version of the biblical story of Adam and Eve, Islam does not teach that their fall caused a transfer of the ‘Original Sin’ to Adam’s seed. Human beings become sinners by sinful acts only, not because of a sinful, fallen nature. Satan, the tempter, is called Iblis. He was rejected by God in the beginning because when the angels did obeisance to Adam, he refused to do so.

Man, though admittedly frail, is believed to be the noblest of God’s creatures. He is commanded to serve God, to honor God, but is too distanced from God to experience the indwelling of his personal presence. One belief, quite unique to Islam, is the story of God, not only creating the first man, Adam, out of clay, but also out of a blood-clot. (Sura 96, ayat 1-2) Also unique is the belief that the original man and woman were created from a single soul. (Qur’an 4:1) Islam teaches man is bipartite: possessing a body and soul.

Jainism: Mahavira, the founder of Jainism, “strongly asserted the independence or autonomy of the individual soul” as opposed to the monistic view from Hinduism that “souls do not remain individualized in eternity, but become absorbed in Brahman.”¹ The life essence or soul of any living thing is termed a jiva. The jiva, in its original state, possesses absolute knowledge. After numerous existences in various forms (such as earth, water, vegetables, worms, bugs, and animals) the jiva eventually evolves to the level of a human being. It then reincarnates many times as a human being until liberation takes place. Man is bipartite, with all matter and the physical body being essentially evil, and the soul, essentially good. The jiva is indestructible, invisible and without shape.

1 Herbert Stroup, Four Religions of Asia (New York: Harper and Row, 1968) p. 99; quoted in Josh McDowell and Don Stewart, Handbook of Today’s Religions (Nashville, Tennessee: Thomas Nelson Publishers, 1983) p. 297.

Judaism: The origin of man is the same as that related under Christianity being drawn from Genesis, the first book of the Bible. However, Jews do not identify the Serpent as Satan, nor do they believe that Adam and Eve’s transgression constituted a “fall” for the entire human race. Concerning the nature of man, it is taught that man is not a mere “dichotomy of body and soul…and certainly not a trichotomy” (as found in Christianity) but a “multifaceted unitary being.”¹ The first man, Adam, became a “living soul” when God breathed into him the “breath of life.” (Genesis 2:7) In a godly person, the soul should dominate the body. The soul is compared “in similes that go back to antiquity, to the rider of a steed, the captain of a ship and the governor of a state. Yet paradoxically, the soul is also often considered as a stranger on the earth, an alien yearning for its supernal home.”²

God creates the soul from nothing, coincidental with the formation of the body in the womb. “The soul requires the good acts of the body to perfect its peculiarly immaterial, celestial-like substance, even as the body needs the faculties of sensation and reason which the soul provides.”³ Man has a nephesh (something also possessed by animals). This is the natural life (life-force) of a human being. Unique to man is the possession of a neshemah (the soul that entered Adam with the breath of God). According to Kabbalistic legend, on the Sabbath, every Jew “acquires an extra soul, a neshema yeterah” in order to experience the joy, peace and blessedness of this holy day to the fullest.⁴

Man is a free agent, able to choose between good and evil. Judaism does not promote the idea that human beings are born into this world under the burden of ‘Original Sin’ inherited from Adam, as taught in Christianity. However, some Jewish theologians would explain that “man’s moral ambivalence derives from the two inclinations within him: the good inclination (yezer tov) and the evil inclination (yezer ra).”⁵

The body is not denigrated as in some religions, but valued, along with the soul, as being in the image and likeness of God. While some religions discourage marital union in order to achieve enlightenment, conversely, in Judaism marriage is a blessed, divine institution and a holy mandate. Members of the Jewish community are normally expected to marry in order to participate in the revealed purpose for mankind and to perpetuate the human species, specifically those who are in covenant with the God of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob.

Shinto: In this Japanese religious worldview, human beings are considered children of the kami (“gods”). Therefore, they have an inborn nature of goodness that can dominate their lives if the defilement of evil is removed.

Sikhism: Man is the noblest of all creatures. He is not born with a sinful nature, but with a divine potential. “The inaccessible illimitable God dwelleth in man’s heart. The body is the palace, the temple, the house of God. Into it he putteth his eternal light.”¹ There are “Nine Abodes [of sensation]; in the Tenth [the superconscious mind] is lodged the Lord, unknowable, limitless.”(Adi Granth, Maru Sohale, M.1., pp. 1035-1037) These “nine abodes” are a reference to the nine openings in the human body. The tenth is a ‘spiritual’ opening.

The idea of a caste system as found in classical Hinduism is rejected, “All are equal before the Creator; none exalted and none abased.” (Japji 33) Man’s goal is to create God’s Kingdom on earth by manifesting the divine nature. The main hindrance to this is something Guru Nanak referred to as haumai, meaning “self-centeredness.” Because of haumai the soul becomes lost in a maze of worldly pleasures and pursuits that prevent it from reaching its divine potential.

1 Rag Malar, Hymns of Guru Nanak: Macauliffe, The Sikh Religion: Its Gurus, Sacred Writings, and Authors 1.374, 375; quoted in Robert S. Hume, Treasure-House of the Living Religions (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1932) p. 80.

Taoism: During the creation process, the Tao brought forth the first man, Pangu. After his death, various parts of his body became different parts of creation. The germs in his body were distributed by the wind throughout the world and became the masses of people. (See “Taoism” under The Origin and Nature of the Universe.) Because the various aspects of creation were originally made from the body of Pangu, in Taoism, each person’s body is compared to, and related to, various aspects of creation. This creates a sense of ‘connectedness’ between the creature and the creation. The vital essence of creation is called ch’i (pronounced “key”). As the ch’i flows through creation in diverse expressions, so it flows through the body in varied ways and by means of numerous invisible ‘meridians.’

At birth, “this internal energy is separated into three components: generative (ching), vital (ch’i) and spirit energy (shen).”¹ These are called “the Three Treasures,” “the Three Flowers and the Three Herbs.”² There are three “cauldrons” in the body in which these three types of energy are stored: lower, middle and upper. Associated with these “cauldrons” in human beings are three “Tan-t’iens” (Elixer Fields). Gates to these Elixer Fields are located along the spine.

Ch’i is expressed in creation and in humanity two main ways: in the complementary opposites of yin ch’i and yang ch’i. Because of this, each individual is described as possessing two kinds of souls: three hun souls, made up of yang ch’i (representing the superior spiritual and intellectual essence of a person); and seven po souls, made up of yin ch’i (the inferior, lower aspect of the human nature). So a total of ten souls reside in each human being. “The three spirit [yang] souls are located beneath the liver. They look like human beings and all wear green robes with yellow inner garments” [royal, courtly attire].³ Their names are Spiritual Guidance, Inner Radiance and Dark Essence. If these dominate a person’s character and actions, demonic activity is restrained, and troubles, misfortunes and suffering are averted.

“The seven material souls consist of the energy of yin and of evil. They are basically demons. They can make a person commit deadly evils…Through them people will completely lose all original purity and simplicity. These souls, far from looking like human beings are strangely formed devils…Their names are accordingly Corpse Dog, Arrow in Ambush, Bird Darkness, Devouring Robber, Flying Poison, Massive Pollution, and Stinky Lungs.”⁴ Though these material souls draw men toward defilement and depravity, they are necessary for physical survival. If these souls dominate a person, the ultimate end is illness and death. The only remedy is responding to the influence of the higher souls and striving toward those things that lead to immortality.

In Taoism, the human body is a microcosm, a small reflection of the cosmos as a whole. Therefore, just as there are three major divinities who rule the universe (the Celestial Emperor, the Cinnabar Sovereign and the Primordial King), so these three divinities reside in every human being’s body (respectively, in the head, the heart and the abdomen). “Together they supervise the twenty-four energies of the body and bring them in accord with the twenty-four deities of Great Tenuity.”⁵ These three yang-type divinities are “powerful good forces of the Dao, divine powers of longevity, good fortune, and immortality that can be called upon and utilized toward perfecting one’s inherent heavenly nature. They…assist the practitioner in his ascent to the divine.”⁶ There are also five spirits that protect the five internal organs of the body: the liver, lungs, heart, spleen and kidneys. “In the liver is the human spirit, in the lungs is the soul, in the heart is the seed of the immortal spirit, in the spleen is the intention, and in the kidneys is the generative energy.”⁷

Numerous “palaces” are in the body that provide dwelling places for various deities, such as the nine palaces in the head: (1) The Hall of Light-one inch inside the head between the eyes, residence of the three Gods of light; (2) The Grotto Chamber-one half inch behind the Hall of Light, residence of the Three Ones; (3) The Cinnabar Field-another one half inch deeper, dwelling of the three Highest Lords of the Universe; (4) The Flowing Pearl Palace-one half inch behind Cinnabar Field, housing the Flowing Pearl Deity: (5) The Palace of the Jade Emperor-one half inch behind the Pearl Palace, home to the Mother of Jade Truth. (6) The Celestial Court-located above the Hall of Light, residence of the Goddess of Highest Clarity; (7) The Palace of Ultimate Truth-found above the Grotto Chamber, containing the Lord of the Great Ultimate; (8) The Palace of Mysterious Cinnabar-above Cinnabar Field, residence of the Great One, of the Lord of the Central Yellow; (9) The Palace of the Great August One-discovered one inch above the Palace of Mysterious Cinnabar, housing the Great August One, the Highest Lord.⁸

There are also yin-type beings that dwell in the body of every person: primarily the “three deathbringers.” These are “a cross between demons and souls, who reside in the head, torso and lower body of the individual…Assisted by a group of parasites known as the nine worms.”⁹ Together, these make every attempt to bring a person under the influence of evil, lust, sickness, mental and emotional stress, aging and death. The name of the upper deathbringer is Peng Ju (also called Shouter); the middle deathbringer is Peng Zhi (also called Maker); the lower deathbringer is Peng Qiao (also called Junior).

The “nine worms,” on the other hand, are not spiritual, but literal. They are physical parasites, who act as “minions of the three deathbringers” to bring about the destruction of the individual. The nine worms are driven to accomplish this, knowing that they will actually feed on the corpses of those persons they successfully conquer. Virtuous behavior, meditation on the Three Major Divinities, and certain ritualistic vigils will counteract the three deathbringers and the nine worms, freeing humans from their influence and propelling them toward the desirable goal of immortality.¹⁰

Zoroastrianism: Ahura Mazda, the righteous God in this worldview, fashioned the first man, naming him Gayomart. “Gayomart’s spirit…lived for 3,000 years during the period in which creation was only spiritual. His mere existence immobilized the evil spirit [Angra Mainyu] who wanted to invade creation. Then Ahura Mazda created Gayomart incarnate-white and brilliant, shining like the sun.”¹ After thirty years of conflict with Angra Mainyu, Gayomart (the first man and the first fire-priest) was killed. His body became the minerals and metals of the earth. Gold was the seed of Gayomart, bringing forth the human race.

Man is seen as basically good. He is a triune being. As promoted in many worldviews, a human being has a soul and a body. However, Zoroastrianism also emphasizes that each person possesses a preexistent divine essence called a fravashi. This is the ‘higher Self,’ which is in union with Ahura Mazda, the God of righteousness in Zoroastrianism. The fravashi is actually “the presence of Ahura Mazda in every human being. It is the Divinity in Humanity. It is the conscience. The fravashi is immortal and…is ever present to guide and protect the person.”² In making choices between right and wrong, good and evil, each person is obligated to consult with his fravashi.

Other Religions, Sects or Teachers

Bahá’í: Adam is considered the father of humankind and a “Manifestation of God.” (See explanation under Question #9 in Part 4.) The biblical story of Adam and Eve is taught to be symbolic, not literal, with Eve serving as a type of Adam’s own soul and the serpent, an emblem of attachment to the world.

Man is bi-partite, comprised of a “physical body and a non-material, rational soul (or human spirit).”¹ He is made in the image of God and is capable of reflecting all of God’s names and attributes. Man is basically good, not in a state of depravity because of an inherited sin status (Original Sin). He possesses both an angelic and an animal nature, and can yield to one or the other. “Self-love is ‘kneaded’ into the human clay,” so human beings must be trained, especially through religion, to reach for higher ideals.² The body is subject to limitations and death, but the soul is unlimited and immortal.

Benjamin Creme (Share International Foundation): Based on the concept of reincarnation, Benjamin Creme instructs that all human beings are governed basically by five ray forces: (1) The ray of the soul (which is the same for countless aeons); (2) The ray of the personality (which changes from life to life “until all qualities are developed”); (3) The ray governing the mental body; (4) The ray governing the astral-emotional equipment; (5) The ray of the physical body, including the brain. These rays “predispose us to certain attitudes of mind and certain strengths and weaknesses, which we call the virtues and vices of the rays… The evolutionary aim is to transmute the vice of the ray into its higher (virtue) aspect.”¹

1 Benjamin Creme, Maitreya’s Mission (London: Share International Foundation, 1997) pp. 354-355.

Brahma Kumaris World Spiritual Organization (Raja Yoga): Man has a body and a soul. The soul enters the body sometime around the fourth or fifth month of pregnancy. The physical body is temporary and perishable. The soul is permanent and imperishable. It is uncreated and eternal, and has neither race nor gender. It is weightless, possessing no physical size. It is not an invisible duplicate of the body. The soul is indestructible because only that which is created can be destroyed. There is a fixed, eternally unchanging number of existent souls. In deep contemplation the soul is seen as an “infinitesimal point of non-physical light surrounded by an oval-shaped aura.”¹ The ‘seat of the soul’ is the third eye (approximately in the center of the forehead, where the pituitary and pineal glands are located).

The soul has three subtle organs: the mind, the intellect and the sub-conscious. The Conscious Mind is made up of thoughts, emotions and desires. The Intellect part of the soul uses judgment, discrimination and decision-making power. The Sub-Conscious is made up of memories, impressions, instincts and habits. These are called sanskaras. They take the form of “habits, talents, emotional temperaments, personality traits, beliefs, values or instincts.” Together these are the “basis of the soul’s individuality.”² Suffering is the result of negative actions due to negative sanskaras. Suffering is a “punishment for…wrongful acts” committed in previous lives during a state of body-consciousness.³

There are three basic functions that the soul executes: “to give and maintain life, to express and experience its role, and to receive the rewards or fruits of past actions performed in previous existences.”⁴ The Darwinian concept of evolution is rejected.

ECKANKAR (Sri Harold Klemp): The present leader of this rel-igious group explains, “Soul is an individual; It retains its individuality throughout all time, beyond time, in all universes, beyond all universes.”¹ Paul Twitchell, the founder of ECKANKAR states, “We are gods of course, but gods of our own universe, and gods among other gods. Every man, woman and child is God! No one can dispute this basic fact of cosmic wisdom!”² “The individual is truth Itself.”³ Paul Twitchell also taught the eternal existence of the Soul: “We have lived for eternity whether in this universe or another, because eternity has no beginning or ending.”⁴ Man is made up of four parts: “Spirit, Soul, mind, and body.”⁵ The physical body is referred to as Nuri Sarup; the soul body that can travel through the astral plane is called Atma Sarup.

Gnosticism: Through the error of a lesser god referred to as a demiurge (usually identified as Yahweh or Jehovah, the God of the Jewish people) the material world was created and man’s soul became trapped. However, there is a spark of divine nature within every human being. Because of its illegitimate beginning, matter is considered evil. It prevents man from realizing his celestial origin.

ISKCON (International Society of Krishna Consciousness): The soul enters a human being at conception. Its measurement is “one ten thousandth part of the tip of a hair. This is very small; in fact, it is atomic.”¹ “The soul is a small God.”² Krishna, as a personal manifestation of Deity, resides within the heart of every human being, but must be discovered in order for a relationship to be established. The soul is part of God, but it is not God. Human beings possess three bodies: (1) The gross body (made of the five basic elements: earth, water, fire, air and ether); (2) The subtle body (comprised of the mind, intelligence and the false ego); and, (3) The spiritual body (made up of sat-chit-ananda, meaning “eternal-knowledge-bliss”). The atma (the soul) is not created; it is eternal and therefore, indestructible.

Kabbala (Mystical Judaism): Man has a body and a soul. Some Kabbalistic schools teach that the soul consists of five ‘levels’ or ‘dimensions of awareness.’ These correspond to the five levels of consciousness in creation. (See “Kabbala” under The Origin and Nature of the Universe.) The two higher aspects of the soul are identified in Kabbalistic teachings as hayyah and yehidah. These relate to the fourth and fifth levels of creation, the “world of the spirit” and the “primordial source” (also known as the “world of emanation” and the “world of will”). These “represent the sublimest levels of intuitive apprehension and to be within the grasp only of a few chosen individuals.”¹ Hayyah (or chayah) means “living essence.” Yehidah means “unity,” and speaks of the highest state of ‘unity’ or communion with God available. Yehidah is described as the “center point of the soul, and as such it disappears into the infinitude of creation.”²

The first three parts of the soul consist of “a vital spirit, an intellectual spirit and the soul proper.”³ The Hebrew terms are nefesh, ru’ah and neshamah. The nefesh is found in every man, entering at birth, and is the source of all his psychological and physical functions as a human being. It relates to the “world of physicality” (the “world of action”). The ru’ah or anima is “aroused at an unspecified time when a man succeeds in rising above his purely vitalistic side. This relates to the “world of emotions” (the “world of formation”). It is the third part of the soul, the neshamah or spiritus, which excels in importance. It is aroused in a man when he occupies himself with the Torah and its commandments, and it opens his higher powers of apprehension, especially his ability to mystically apprehend the Godhead and the secrets of the universe.”⁴ Neshemah relates to the “world of the intellect” (the “world of creation”).

These three lower soul-parts, collectively referred to as naran, originate from three different sources (three of the ten emanations from the Godhead called Sefirot): “the nefesh originates in the Sefirah Malkhut, the ru’ah in the Sefirah Tiferet, and the neshamah in the Sefirah Binah.”⁵

There is also an aspect of man called the zelem (the “image” mentioned in Genesis 1:26 when God said, “Let us make man in our image, after our likeness”). The zelem is the essence of individuality bestowed upon every human being. It is also man’s “ethereal garment” or “ethereal body which serves as an intermediary between his material body and his soul.” “It is the garment with which the souls clothe themselves in the celestial paradise before descending to the lower world and which they don once again after their reascent following physical death.” “Unlike the soul, the zelem grows and develops in accordance with the biological processes of its possessor.”⁶

So apparently there are seven divisions that comprise the whole of man: the physical body, the ethereal body, and the five aspects of the soul. In the Encyclopedia Judaica, Gershom Scholem explains the Kabbalistic view of the “Nature of Man,” “At opposite poles, both man and God encompass within their being the entire cosmos…man’s role is to complete this process by being the agent through whom all the powers of creation are fully activated and made manifest…Man is the perfecting agent in the structure of the cosmos: like all the other created beings, only even more so, he is composed of all ten Sefirot and “of all spiritual things,” that is, of the supernal principles that constitute the attributes of the Godhead.”⁷

Kriya Yoga (Sri Yukteswar): Each person is a “Son of God” (purusha). Each purusha is covered by five sheaths (koshas): (1) The heart (Chitta), that which “feels or enjoys…the seat of bliss” (anandamaya kosha); (2) The intelligence or buddhi: the seat of knowledge (jnanamaya kosha); (3) The mind (manomaya kosha), composed of the sense organs; (4) The body of energy, life-force or prana (pranayama kosha); (5) The body of gross matter (annamaya kosha).¹ (Paramahansa Yogananda) Human beings have three bodies (from which Consciousness must be delivered): (1) A physical body of sixteen elements; (2) An astral body of nineteen elements (composed of life-force and mind); (3) A causal body of thirty-five elemental ideas (the combination of the sixteen God-thoughts that produced the physical body and the nineteen God-thoughts that produced the astral body). The “consciousness, or soul, is a spark of the cosmic consciousness of God.”² “God is the essence of our own being.”³ “He is your Self…He exists equally and impartially in all beings.”⁴

Kundalini Yoga (Yogi Bhajan): Human beings possess ten bodies: a spiritual body (the soul), three mental bodies (the negative mind, the positive mind and the neutral mind), the physical body, the arc body, the auric body, the subtle body, the pranic body and the radiant body.¹ There are eight main chakras (energy centers): the seven chakras traditionally taught in Yoga, and an eighth (the aura or magnetic energy field around a person). Of the three functional minds there are nine aspects, twenty-seven projections and eighty-one facets.²

Meher Baba: An ordinary human being possesses four main parts: (1) A gross body (the physical body); (2) A subtle body (pran); (3) A mental body (mana); (4) A ‘higher Self’ (Atma). As a person evolves spiritually, other parts are developed or ‘awakened.’ A God-realized person is comprised of seven parts: (1) A gross body; (2) A subtle body; (3) A mental body; (4) A universal body; (5) A universal mind; (6) An unlimited divine ego; (7) Infinite consciousness. The soul is formless and eternal.

There are 18,000 worlds inhabited by human beings, but only those born in this world can transcend into the higher spheres. Souls from the other worlds will be reincarnated here when it is time for their spiritual development. When this earth ceases to be, another planet will be chosen to fill this special role. “After a billion years, man will only be five inches in height at the most, but will be very brainy. In the beginning of this cycle man was fourteen feet tall and would live up to 300 years.”¹ The Son of God or divine nature is in every man, but needs to be manifested.

1 Bhau Kalchuri, Lord Meher, vol. 5 (Asheville, North Carolina: Manifestation, Inc.) pp. 1871-1873, Meherabad, May 23, 1934.

Scientology: Teaches that man is innately good. He is made up of three main parts: the body, the mind and the thetan. This term, unique to this religion, is drawn from the Greek letter theta, used traditionally to represent “thought” or “life.” Theta is the spiritual essence or life force of all living things. Human beings are thetans, possessing a mind and inhabiting a body. Thetans originally existed in a pre-creation, supernatural state with unhindered, godlike abilities and attributes. Through a long association with the physical universe these beings became trapped in MEST (Material-Energy-Space-Time), descending from a spiritual, divine-like state to the present limitations of human existence. Because of this tragic “fall from perfection,” men and women, in their earthly state, normally fail to realize both their former estate and their present potential. So the thetan is the ‘higher Self,’ and, though often neglected, it is the seniormost, spiritual essence of a person. The body and the mind are only temporary vehicles used by the thetan in the “handling of life and the physical universe.” It is described as “the source of all creation and life itself.”¹

Very important to the Scientologist worldview is the belief that each person possesses two distinctly different minds: the reactive mind (which is negative) and the analytical mind (which is positive). The reactive mind works on a “stimulus-response basis,” is not under the control of human will, and subconsciously exerts adverse influence over a person’s “awareness, purposes, thoughts, body and actions.”² This mind is full of negative data resulting from the emotionally and mentally damaging experiences of all earthly existences, both past and present. The analytical mind is “the mind which thinks, observes data, remembers it and resolves problems.”³ Conquering the reactive mind frees the analytical mind, enabling a person to make positive choices about how he or she will act and react in life.

Sufism (Mystical Islam): Sufis accept the creation story as found in the Koran. The early mystic, Suhrawardi, also taught that souls pre-exist in the realm of angels. As they enter the body, they separate. One part remains in a heavenly sphere while the other descends into its fleshly ‘prison.’ Helminski concludes, “That is why the soul is unhappy in this world; it searches for its other half and must be reunited with its heavenly prototype in order to become perfected and to become itself again.”¹

According to the thirteenth century Sufi Master of the Kubrawi order in Central Asia, ‘Ala’ al-Dawla Simnani, there are “Seven Subtle Substances” in the human makeup: (1) body (qalab); (2) soul (nafs); (3) heart (qalb); (4) conscience (sirr); (5) spirit (ruh); (6) mystery (khafi); (7) reality (haqq).² Tightly embraced is Mohammed’s teaching-”the heart of the believer is the sanctuary of God.” Overcoming the ‘lower self’ to manifestly become this ‘sanctuary’ is the path to union with the Divine. In other words, Sufis strive to become God’s eyes, ears, speech, will and life expressed in the world.

Orthodox Muslims have often misinterpreted such lofty aspirations. For instance, one of the recognized leaders of early Sufism, Ibn al-Arabi, was martyred for what some construed to be a declaration of his own divinity, “I am He Whom I love. He Whom I love is I; we are two souls co-inhabiting one body. If you see me you see Him and if you see Him you see me.” Another controversial Sufi leader, Hallaj, was martyred for saying, “I am the truth.” Strict Islamic doctrine does not allow for any man claiming oneness with God. Most notable is the ecstatic outburst of Bayazid Bistami, “Glory be to me, how great is my majesty.” Other Sufis, who appreciate and share the mystical ideas of these men, defend their assertions-insisting they were not heretical claims of personal Divinity. Rather, they were enlightened claims of spiritually mature ‘friends of God’ who succeeded in experiencing union with God and ‘reflecting’ his attributes. “The standard explanation of these sayings was that the ego of the individual is annihilated during an ecstatic state, and so it is really God speaking and not the human being.”³

Hazarat Inayat Khan (1882-1927 A.D.) was a modernistic Sufi, an Indian mystic, who taught a universalistic brand of Sufism. On some issues, his ideas are extreme and quite distanced from mainstream Sufism. One example is his unique concept concerning the nature of man: that the “soul, born on earth, contains three beings: the angel, the jinn and the human.”⁴ Each has its own body, the angelic body being larger than the jinn body, which is itself somewhat larger than the physical body-yet these three bodies blend together in oneness. Traditional Sufis distinguish angels, jinn and humans from each other as separate, unrelated entities.

Theosophy: Teaches that man has a “Septenary Nature,” one consisting of seven aspects: (1) The physical body (rupa or Sthula-Sarira); (2) Life or vital principle (prana); (3) Astral body (linga sharira); (4) Animal soul (kama rupa); (5) Mind or intelligence-the human soul (manas); (6) Spiritual soul (buddhi); and (7) Spirit (atma). The first four make up the discardable and perishable “Lower Quarternary.” The last three make up the “Upper Imperishable Triad.”¹

The “animal soul” (kama rupa) is the temporary personality associated with a single incarnation. It is even referred to as the “false personality.” The “human soul” (manas) is the “permanent individuality or reincarnating ego.” The “spiritual soul” (buddhi) is “the divine Ego,” the “vehicle of pure universal spirit.” The “spirit” (atma) is the highest essence of God above a person. It is one with the Divine or Brahma.²

A unique aspect of Helena Blavatsky’s teaching is the idea that the astral body (also called the “phantom body” or “eidolon”) is that which appears to spiritualists in their attempts to contact those who have died. This ‘part’ of the “Lower Quarternary” has already been disposed of in the realm called “Kama-loka.” It is in the process of disintegration, and, because it is disconnected from the eternal ‘Self,’ it actually grants deceptive, false experiences to spiritualists. The true ‘Self’ (the “manas” or “ego”) has, in most cases, already passed into the higher realm called “Devachan,” awaiting the next reincarnation.

Man is also spoken of as being divine, God in expression…“For Christ-the true esoteric savior-is no man but the DIVINE PRINCIPLE in every human being.”³ One theosophist offers, “If the idea of the imma-nence of God is sound, then man is a literal fragment of the consciousness of the Supreme Being…an embryo god…destined to ultimately evolve his latent powers into perfect expression.”⁴

Transcendental Meditation (Maharishi Mahesh Yogi): “The impersonal God is that Being which dwells in the heart of everyone. Each individual in his true nature is the impersonal God.”¹

1 Maharishi Mahesh Yogi, Science of Being and Art of Living (New York: Meridian, an imprint of Dutton Signet, a division of Penguin Books, 1995) p. 271.

United Church of Religious Science (Dr. Ernest Holmes): “There is something Divine about us that we have overlooked. There is more to us than we realize. Man is an eternal destiny, a forever-expanding principle of conscious intelligence…the ocean in the drop of water, the sun in its rays. Man, the real man, is birthless, deathless, changeless; and God, as man, in man, IS man!”¹ “Man is the Self-Knowingness of God; the Consciousness of God in execution; the Action of God moving into fulfillment; the Thought of God seeking self-expression.”²

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