The Nature of Salvation,
Liberation, or Enlightenment

Buddhism: There are differences of opinion within the various Buddhist sects on this subject. Generally and foundationally speaking, Buddha taught that salvation or liberation is attained, not by prayer, or grace or sacrifice, but by knowledge. Originally, in Theravada Buddhism (the ‘Lesser Vehicle’) it was necessary to be a monk to attain salvation (liberation from rebirth). The Buddhist monk was required to affirm his trust in the ‘Three Refuges’: (1) the Buddha; (2) the Dharma (the doctrine); (3) the Sangha (the monastic order). The great majority of Buddhists belong to a sect that developed later called Mahayana Buddhism (the ‘Greater Vehicle’). This branch of Buddhism teaches that enlightenment is available for all Buddhists: monks and lay people alike. In both sects, the attainment of an enlightened status comes primarily by following “The Eightfold Path”: (1) Right Knowledge; (2) Right Thought; (3) Right Speech; (4) Right Conduct; (5) Right Livelihood; (6) Right Effort; (7) Right Mindfulness; (8) Right Meditation. So for the majority of Buddhists, salvation is a product of self-effort. Buddha warned of five mental hazards and ten fetters which must be conquered before liberation comes. Some of these include: “belief in a self, belief in the efficacy of good works, desire for a future life in heaven, pride and ignorance.”[1]

     Amidha Buddhism is uniquely different, instructing its followers to place their trust in the power and compassion of Amida Buddha (the Buddha of infinite light, different than Gautama Buddha) in order to be saved. Nichiren Buddhism obligates its adherents to chant an incantation from the Lotus Sutra in order to achieve liberation. Zen Buddhism promotes the perfecting of certain meditation techniques. One sect, Jodo-Shinshu, the True School of the Pure Land, teaches that no Buddhist, or anyone else, can be saved unless they possess faith in the merits of Amida Buddha (also called Amitabha).

     Final liberation for any Buddhist is Nirvana. This could be described as non-being—“the extinction of personal existence by absorption into pure Being.”[2] Nirvana is passionless peace, detached serenity, cessation of all desire, freedom from both pain and pleasure. Most Buddhists resist the idea that Nirvana means the annihilation of the soul; for they do not believe there is a soul to annihilate. One popular Vietnamese Buddhist writer, Thich Nhat Hanh, explains Nirvana to be “the extinction of ideas and concepts and suffering based on ideas and concepts; the ultimate dimension of reality.”[3] In order to attain Nirvana a person must overcome the “three unwholesome roots—desire, hatred and delusion.”[4]

     Thich Nhat Hanh also offers that there are 84,000 dharma doors (“entries into the stream of the Buddha’s teaching and realization”). He also advises “monks and laypersons who practice well always observe the Five Wonderful Precepts, the 38 Bodhisattva Precepts, or the 250 Pratimoksa Precepts.”[5] Contrary to Jainism, another offshoot of Hinduism, Buddha taught that women are just as capable of enlightenment as men.

Christianity: Salvation is provided through the crucifixion of Jesus Christ, his resurrection, calling upon his name in prayer, true repentance, faith and the experience of being “born again.” The Bible teaches that the Lord Jesus Christ, though perfect himself, became one with transgression on the cross, assuming the sin-debt of the entire human race. (See 2 Corinthians 5:21.) He also tasted “death for every man.” (Hebrews 2:9) The Christian view is that all human beings deserve death, not only physically, but also spiritually and eternally, as a result of their sins. But Jesus, by identifying with sinners on the cross, paid the ultimate price to deliver his people from the failures of their past.

Several things work together to produce a salvation experience. The main steps are described in the epistle to the Romans: “that if you confess with your mouth the Lord Jesus and believe in your heart that God has raised him from the dead, you will be saved. For with the heart one believes unto righteousness, and with the mouth confession is made unto salvation.” (Romans 10:9-10)

Three verses later, another essential feature is added, “Whoever calls on the name of the Lord shall be saved.” This involves more than just intellectual assent concerning the historical existence of Jesus. When repentant and believing persons call by faith on the name of Jesus, accepting him into their hearts as Lord of their lives, they are “born again.” This is more than just a moral reformation. It is a supernatural regeneration of the human spirit. (See Titus 3:5.) The blood of Jesus washes away all sin. (See Revelation 1:5; 7:14.) This cleanses the heart, rendering it suitable for the indwelling of the Spirit of God. This spiritual rebirth is necessary to enter the kingdom of God. (See John 3:1-16.)

All of this takes place, not because of a person’s merit, but because of grace. “For by grace you have been saved through faith, and that not of yourselves; it is the gift of God, not of works, lest anyone should boast.” (Ephesians 2:8-9) Grace is unmerited love from God. It enters the lives of believers in response to their humility and faith. (See 1 Peter 5:5.)

Confucianism: Although Confucius originally de-emphasized prayer, attentiveness to the supernatural or devotion to spiritual beings, numerous deities have traditionally been worshipped in Confucianism (especially as advocates mixed this worldview with other religious beliefs). (See Analects 3:13, 7:34, 6:20.) Even so, this philosophy of life promotes essentially a self-dependent scheme of salvation: “What the superior man seeks is in himself.” (Analects 15:20) This striving for excellence, however, must be prompted by sensitivity to spiritual knowledge, for “Without recognizing the ordinances of Heaven it is impossible to be a superior man.” (Analects 20:3.1) There are three hundred rules of ceremony and three thousand rules of demeanor to which men should conform. (Doctrine of the Mean 27:3)

Confucius’ main instructions revolved around jen, a Chinese word rendered “love,” “goodness” and “human-heartedness.” Jen primarily concerns the development of moral excellence. It is taught in conjunction with li (proper conduct and ritual harmony), shu (the concept of reciprocity), chung (faithful devotion to one’s true nature), yi (righteousness) and hsiao (obedience to, and care of, parents and elder family members).

Hinduism: In Hinduism there are three main paths (marga) to salvation or liberation: (1) The Way of Knowledge (jnana-marga-study of the sacred texts and contemplation of the soul’s oneness with Brahman); (2) The Way of Devotion (bhakti-marga-loving surrender of the self to God, often in the form of worshipful service of an individual deity); (3) The Way of Works (karma-marga-the way of good deeds, as well as properly following religious ceremonies, traditions and ethical duties).

These three paths could also be otherwise identified as Jnana Yoga, Bhakti Yoga and Karma Yoga. Many teachers, including Ramakrishna, identify a fourth main path as Raja Yoga, differentiating between the pursuit of knowledge (Jnana Yoga) and the psychophysical techniques aimed at subduing the mind and experiencing the super-conscious state (Raja Yoga). These methods include body postures, breath control and concentration or contemplation: all aimed at the ultimate goal of achieving samadhi. Following one or all of these paths can finally deliver a person from samsara (the cycle of rebirths). Many Hindus would say that total liberation (moksha) comes when the soul achieves undifferentiated union with Brahman.

In contrast, the Sankhya Yoga School within Hinduism teaches that final liberation is not signified by an absolute, monistic oneness with Brahman: a perception of everything being in the Self and the Self in everything. Instead, it involves the freeing of the individual soul from the cycle of rebirth, yet simultaneously, an isolation from all other ‘Selves’ within the sphere of its own personal, omnipresent, omniscient, divine, eternal existence. In this viewpoint, absorption into Brahman does not mean the absolute loss of individuality.

This sect also teaches eight stages in the practice of yoga: (1) Self-control-yama; (2) Religious observance-niyama; (3) Postures-asanas; (4) Breath and life-force control-pranayama; (5) Withdrawal from control of the senses-pratyahara; (6) Concentration, steadying of the mind-dharana; (7) Meditation-dhyana; (8) Profound con-templation-samadhi-which ultimately ends in complete absorption in God. Though not emphasized as much today, in historical Hinduism animal sacrifices were particularly cited as a means of atonement and an answer for the human dilemma.

Islam: The primary path to salvation centers around submission to Allah, submission to the Qur’an, and submission to the “Five Pillars” of Islam: (1) Shahada-The daily profession of faith, “There is no God but Allah and Mohammed is his prophet”; (2) Salat-Prayer must be made toward Mecca five times a day; (3) Ramadan-This is the month of fasting. During the month of Ramadan Muslims cannot eat, drink, smoke or have sexual relations between dawn and sunset; (4) Zakat-Almsgiving: two-and-a-half percent (1/40th) of the annual savings must be donated to charity; (5) Hajj-Pilgrimage: a Muslim is expected to make a journey to Mecca once in his lifetime. Another major emphasis is repentance. It is always possible to repent (tawbah) and those who do are restored to a state of sinlessness.

Adherence to the teachings of all the prophets of Allah is a major expectation in Islam. Twenty-eight prophets are mentioned in the Qur’an. Twenty-two of these are found in the Old Testament, including: Adam, Enoch, Methusaleh, Noah, Abraham, Lot, Ishmael, Isaac, Jacob, Moses, David, Solomon, Elijah, Elisha and Jonah. Three are discovered in the New Testament: Zechariah, John the Baptist and Jesus. Mohammed is presented as the final prophet, surpassing all others in greatness. God’s prophetic spokesmen are honored, but none are considered divine.

An interesting offshoot of Islam is Sufism. This is the esoteric branch of Islam. For most Muslims, Allah is so far above this material world that, to finite men, he is incomprehensible and unattainable. Sufis, on the other hand, claim mystical experiences with God are available through meditation and a whirling kind of dance that brings on an ecstatic experience.

Jainism: According to the teachings of the founder, Vardharmana Jnatrputra (later named Mahavira, meaning “great hero”), liberation is attained, not only by following a regimen of meditation, but also by strict ascetic practices. These include adhering to the ‘Five Great Vows’-a renunciation of (1) Killing any living thing; (2) Lying; (3) Greed; (4) Sexual pleasure and, (5) Worldly attachments. The ‘Three Jewels’ are Right Faith, Right Knowledge and Right Living.

Jains believe in Anekantavada, the concept that “there is no single reality and there are many perspectives on the truth.”¹ Also greatly emphasized among Jainists is Ahimsa (non-violence). A true Jainist refuses to kill any living thing. Deeply respectful of life, Jainists even strain the water they drink to avoid killing small organisms. Monks often sweep the path in front of them to avoid accidentally stepping on insects. Even farming is discouraged for fear of killing creatures in the soil.

Because of their passion to transcend the natural realm, Jainist monks often go to extreme measures of self-denial, such as: refraining from taking baths, brushing their teeth or sleeping on a bed. These rules of asceticism have been modified for Jainist laymen. However, laymen are expected to take upon themselves twelve vows, and as they progress, to fulfill the eleven promises, and develop the twenty-one qualities which mark a true Jain. These vows and promises include commitments to non-violence, truthfulness, meditation, abstinence, times of temporary celibacy, non-attachment or limitation of possessions and the worship of a true deva (Tirthankara). Certain days are set aside for layman to voluntarily live a monastic type of life.

Altogether, there are fourteen steps to liberation from accumulated karma. Full salvation is unattainable by laymen unless, as the end of life draws near, they take the vow of old age, which includes voluntary starvation (sellekhana). Monks (ascetics) are instructed to abandon love as well as hate, because both are forms of attachment. Final liberation comes when one is delivered from the cycle of rebirths.

Jainist monks believe that ideally nudity should be a part of their discipline, after the pattern of their founder (as a wandering ascetic, he went without clothes). However, a major schism exists between the Svetambaras (“white-clad”) and the Digambaras (“sky-clad”). The former believe that owing to the present degeneration of the universe nudity is no longer advisable. The latter believe nudity is appropriate and correct when its practice is feasible. In the Digambara sect of Jainism, a woman cannot hope for salvation until, because of a virtuous life, she is reborn as a man.

1 Philip Wilkinson, “Jain History and Beliefs,” Illustrated Dictionary of Religions (New York, New York: DK Publishing, 1999) p. 46.

Judaism: Personal salvation in Judaism is based on repentance, good deeds and adherence to the Torah (the Law). However, these three ingredients are mixed with a strong trust, not in self-achieved righteousness, but in the mercy of God. Actually, in Judaism, the concept of salvation is more national than personal. It differs significantly from Christianity, which promotes the concept of a ‘fallen nature,’ which a person must be ‘saved from.’ The Jewish belief is that a person is born good and can remain good by observing God’s commandments.

Rightness with God, though always available, is especially obtainable once a year on Yom Kippur, the Day of Atonement. “The capstone of the Jewish view of man is his ever-present opportunity for repentance and forgiveness…If he repents in sincerity he is immediately forgiven…Thus the Rabbis suggested that t’shuvah or penitence was created even before the world itself was formed. In fact, they project the thought that t’shuvah is the cement which keeps the world from falling apart.”¹ Such respect for this concept gives rise to comments like R. Jacob’s, “One moment of repentance and good deeds in this world is better than the entire life of the world to come.” (Mishnah, Ethics of the Fathers 4:17) The age of accountability is thirteen for boys (Bar Mitzvah) and twelve for girls (Bat Mitzvah). At these ages children become legally responsible for keeping God’s commandments.

Prior to the destruction of the Temple in Jerusalem in 70 A.D. and subsequent exile of the Jewish people, atonement for sin was represented by animal sacrifices. Since sacrifices could only be performed in the Temple, after its destruction, the sacrifices ceased. Many Jews consider the non-observance of these sacred rites an indication of God’s punishment for the collective sins of the Jewish people. However, ancient Jewish prophets predicted that this deprived condition would last only for a season-that in the “latter days” there would be a restoration of the Jewish people to their homeland, a rebuilding of the Temple and a continuation of their original methods of sacrifice (finalized apparently, when the Messiah comes). The full benefits of salvation will then be available once again to the sons and daughters of Abraham. (See Jeremiah 32:37-42, Ezekiel 37-48, Hosea 3:4.)

It is believed in Judaism that only those who embrace the belief in one God (monotheism) can inherit an eternal reward. (In Isaiah 45:21-22 God declares, “…There is no other God besides Me…I am God; there is no other.”). One rabbi, Moses Luzatto, insists, “The Torah is the only remedy for the evil impulse. Whoever thinks that he can be helped without it is mistaken and will realize his error when he dies for his sins.”² However, this does not exclude non-Jews from having hope for the future. Many Jewish teachers open wide the door of opportunity. In his code, Moses Maimonides proposes “the pious of the nations of the world have a portion in the world to come.” (Yad. Teshuvah 3:5)³ And Rabbi Yohanan ben Zakkai said, “Just as the sin-offering atones for Israel, so righteousness atones for the peoples of the world.” (Babylonian Talmud, Baba Batra 10b)⁴

The “Noachide Laws” are the seven laws considered by rabbinic tradition as the minimal moral duties enjoined by the Bible upon all humankind. Jews are obligated to observe the whole Torah, while every non-Jew is a “son of the covenant of Noah.” (See Genesis 9:1-17.) Hence, they are duty-bound to keep the laws revealed to this ancient patriarch and receive them as being divinely inspired. Traditionally, there are seven “Noachide Laws.” The first six are negative laws, involving the prohibition of (1) Idolatry; (2) Blasphemy; (3) Bloodshed; (4) Sexual sins; (5) Theft; and (6) Eating from a living animal. (7) The seventh is a positive law, the demand for the establishment of a legal system.⁵ Those non-Jews who abide by these rules qualify for acceptance by God eternally in the world to come. So there is a general covenant between God and humanity (the Adamic and Noahic Covenants), and a specific covenant between God and the Jews (beginning with the Abrahamic Covenant).

The primary emphasis in Judaism is abiding in “covenant” (berith) with the God of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob by observing his “commandments” (mitzvoth-613 are found in the Torah). Traditional Orthodox Judaism has defined the commandments through Halakhah (lit. “the way”-the way in which to live according to Jewish law, custom and practice). Modern reformed Judaism considers Halakhah non-obligatory, while the Conservative Movement has redefined it with a more modernistic view. Circumcision for males is practiced by all Jews, being a major facet of the original covenant God made with the patriarch, Abraham. (See Genesis 17.)

Shinto: Salvation is secured by appeasing the gods, by worshipful reverence toward departed ancestors and by obeying the numerous social, religious and physical regulations, codes and taboos that have been interwoven into the Japanese lifestyle. Every true Shinto home contains a Kami-dana, or ‘god-shelf.’ On this miniature shrine are placed emblems and names of various gods and ancestors, along with offerings. There is no fully defined concept of sin or of human beings being born under the burden of a fallen nature. Since adherents feel they are the offspring of the gods, they consider themselves heirs of a nature that is basically good and potentially divine. Most forms of this religion teach a person must be Japanese to be a Shintoist. However, of the approximately 150 sects, some are quite zealous about converting those who are not Japanese into their ranks.

Sikhism: Guru Nanak, founder of Sikhism, taught liberation (mukti) could be obtained through four progressive steps. They are the Name (nam), the Word (sabad), the Teacher (guru) and Harmony (hukam). Nam, the divine Name, and sabad, the divine Word, reveal the essence and character of God. Man, however, is subject to the bondage of his fleshly, ignorant state. He fails to recognize God’s presence in his Name and Word, so he needs a guru, one who leads from darkness (gu) to enlightenment (ru). Through the guru’s influence, the seeker is ‘awakened.’ He can then perceive hukam, the Divine Order, or Harmony.

A seeker harmonizes his life with the Divine through acceptance of, and obedience to the Word (the Adi Granth) and meditation on the divine Name (nam simaran). In all reality, though, these can only lead a person into a godly lifestyle. Ultimate salvation or liberation (release from the cycle of rebirths) can only be attained through God’s grace. It is stated in the Japji (a basic Credal Statement) that-“The body takes its birth because of karma. But salvation is attained because of the grace (of the Lord).” (Japji, Pauri 4) Though many Sikhs do believe in reincarnation, some feel this doctrine is not definitely indicated in their holy writings and that ‘liberation’ (mukti) is primarily freedom from an egoistic existence. Personal salvation, escape from suffering, or remaining absorbed in spiritual bliss is not the Sikh ideal. For many Sikhs, striving for moral, spiritual progress is not an end in itself; it is a preparation to equip oneself for the better service of humanity.

Internal attitudes, as opposed to outward religiosity, are emphasized in yet another verse (Japji 21), “Pilgrimage, austerities, charity and alms earn no more merit than a paltry sesame. Hear, believe, nurture love in your heart, for thus one is cleansed by the waters within.” Also, renouncing the flesh and withdrawing from the world are not requirements, as in the asceticism of Hinduism. Instead, Sikhs are expected to work toward liberation through their day-to-day living-and not only for their own sake, but for others. Because of this, some would describe it as a ‘whole life religion.’

Also emphasized for orthodox Sikh men are the outward symbols referred to as the “Five K’s”: the kesh (uncut hair), the kangha (a comb that fastens the hair in place), the kirpan (a dagger), the kara (steel bangle) and the kachh (undertrousers). These articles of faith represent various values that Sikhs attempt to live by, such as: fulfilling God’s will, living in purity and courage, and defending the weak and oppressed. Prohibitions include refraining from the use of alcohol, tobacco and all intoxicants.

Taoism: Because the Tao (the Principle that rules the universe) “never acts, yet nothing is left undone,” a passive life of creative inaction (quiet non-striving) is advocated for those seeking spiritual maturity. The model Taoist is calm and peaceful, like the Source of all things, the underlying flow of life. This ideal standard of living is called wu-wei.

Viewing the human family in its unity and expressing kindness and goodness impartially toward all is also encouraged, for “to know the eternal is enlightenment; not to know the eternal means to run blindly to disaster. He who knows the eternal is all-embracing. He who is all-embracing is impartial. To be impartial is to be kingly. To be kingly is to be heavenly. To be heavenly is to be one with the Tao. To be one with the Tao is to endure forever.” (Tao-te Ching 16)

A person achieves immortality when he rises above a sense-controlled existence, when he lives a virtuous life, when he abides by the standard of the Tao and is in harmony with his body. Such an individual is titled chen jen-a perfected person. In order to accomplish this, there are many ceremonies, magical rites, traditions, meditation practices and religious disciplines that a devoted Taoist will normally pursue. Different sects emphasize different means. For instance, Celestial Teachers Taoism emphasizes the use of talismans and incantations, especially to cure illnesses and ward off evil spirits.

Shang-ch’ing Taoism emphasizes “Keeping the One” (staying in harmony with the Tao) and “holding the guardian deities” (the San-yuan, the gods who live in the body).¹ Meditating on these deities-named the Three Pure Ones or the Three Primal Ones-replaces “the three deathbringers in the major energy centers of the body and make the person immortal.”² Once every two months the “deathbringers” have to “ascend to the heavens to make their report to the celestial administration” (the Jade Emperor).³ If a Taoist successfully keeps nightly vigils during at least seven such times, the “deathbringers” become emaciated and die, thus freeing a person from their influence. Fasting, abstinence from grains, stilling the mind and eliminating craving are also offered as means of overcoming these ‘monsters’ in the body.

Other unique esoteric practices promoting physical and spiritual well being include: (1) Absorbing the essence of the sun, moon, stars and vapor-and their related deities-through various meditative practices, in order to bring the microcosms of the body into harmony with the macrocosms of the universe; (2) Pursuing spiritual transformation through the gathering of, and preservation of, generative energy. Different sects claim this is accomplished by one of two approaches: either by the restraint or regulation of sexual practices (called “the Singular Path”) or by the absorbing of generative energy through involvement with multiple sexual partners (called “the Paired Path”). For the latter to be effective there must be “no love, no pleasure, and no desire” and the sexual act must be halted before orgasm occurs for the one seeking to accumulate generative energy.⁴ The energy gained by this procedure is of a lower nature and must be refined and transmuted into a higher form of vital energy to be physically and spiritually useful to the practitioner.

Zoroastrianism: Because this religion emphasizes ‘salvation by works,’ adherents tend to display a greater tolerance toward people of other religions. Zoroastrians must have a dominance of good works to be saved. The three most honorable and desirable virtues are good thoughts, good words and good deeds. Man’s chief duty is to offer his body as a habitation for the Beneficent Immortals. (See “Zoroastrianism” under The Nature of God.) Hell is considered merely a temporary abode for the correction of the wicked, because all souls will be saved in the end (the doctrine of universalism). The practice of imbibing a hallucinogenic drink called haoma has become an emphasized rite. Also, instead of burying or cremating the dead, corpses are placed above the ground in a daxma (a ‘tower of silence’) where the remains are eaten by vultures and insects. Disposing of human remains in any other way is considered a serious sin.

Other Religions, Sects or Teachers

Bahá’í: This faith teaches the unification of all religions. However, it emphasizes, not “salvation” (as Christianity, Islam and others) or “enlightenment” (as most Eastern traditions), but “transformation” of the individual into a spiritual, godly person. Two main things are necessary for this ‘spiritual transformation’ to take place: (1) “Faith in the current Manifestation of God (at present, Bahá’u’lláh)”-the founder of Bahá’í, and; (2) “Good deeds.”¹

Also emphasized are meditation on the Word of God, serving others and teaching the faith to others (through both explanation and example). Bahá’ís do not seek to know or experience God directly, since he can only be known through his messengers. Members of the Bahá’í community are “under the obligation to pray daily; to abstain from narcotics, alcohol, or any substances that affect the mind” and “to practice monogamy.” They are also urged to “attend the Nineteen Day Feast on the first day of each month of the Bahá’í calendar.”² Asceticism is forbidden.

Brahma Kumaris World Spiritual Organization (Raja Yoga): “Soul consciousness” is spoken of as being “the Gateway to God,” as opposed to body consciousness. When a person maintains the attitude, “I am a body,” he or she becomes “trapped in a world of temporary illusions, likes and dislikes.”¹ Relating to oneself as a soul is, therefore, the first main step in achieving higher levels of consciousness. When this happens the truth-seeker tends to realize: “the soul is the driver; the body is the car. The soul is the guest; the body is the hotel. The soul is the actor; the body is the costume. The soul is the musician; the body is the instrument.”²

Furthermore, when seeking persons realize their union with the Ultimate Reality and begin burning with love toward the ‘Supreme Soul,’ “sin can be rapidly incinerated. To this end the soul need only increase its love for God. Blind faith, penance, worship or despair will not help.”³ Loving communion with the most holy Supreme Soul purifies the individual soul and moves it toward its original state of purity and bliss.

“The belief that we have inherited sin from the time of Adam is not true. Each soul has become impure by its own actions during its births. We ourselves became impure and peaceless through losing our self-awareness, so it is useless to blame anyone else…The soul itself creates its accounts, good and bad, so the soul itself must balance them. No human soul, whether Christ or Buddha, or even some guru or spiritual guide can settle someone else’s account of sins. In this respect many souls are being misled by those who claim to be able to alter or interfere with the workings of the laws of karma…The account of impure actions can only be balanced by pure actions on the part of the ‘doer’: the soul.”⁴

Five steps are given to release a person from this spiritual bondage: (1) “Acceptance of personal responsibility”; (2) Recognition of the impressions (sanskaras) that promote soul-consciousness and God-consciousness, as opposed to the impressions (sanskaras) that promote body-consciousness; (3) Attentiveness to thought-life, and a commitment to stop the development of thoughts that tend toward body-consciousness; (4) Elimination of negative karma, that manifests in negative sanskaras, by developing “deep communion with the Supreme Soul”; (5) “Accrual of credit through pure and God-inspired actions for the spiritual welfare of others.”⁵

The “Four Pillars” of Raja Yoga are: (1) Sattvic Diet: Vegetarianism is mandatory. Also, food to be eaten must be prepared by a pure person who maintains loving remembrance of God; (2) Good Company, the development of godly virtues by being in daily contact with spiritual-minded persons; (3) Study of Raja Yoga; (4) Celibacy. These four things are required in order to reach a fully enlightened state of soul-consciousness. It is also necessary to walk in: faith, renunciation (Tiag), intense meditation (Tapasya), and service of others (Seva). Renunciation means primarily renunciation of negativity, not necessarily material things. Those who reach the depth of meditation can visit and experience the spiritual world above this natural plane. The primary emphasis is love generated constantly toward the Father, rendering rituals and ceremonial religious acts inferior and unnecessary.

A follower of this worldview believes that the destruction of this world is imminent (to take place at the end of the Diamond Age), and that the duty of every enlightened person is to warn others to prepare for this pivotal change.

ECKANKAR: Enlightenment comes through the experience of the cosmic “Light and Sound” of God, a revelation said to be most perfectly unveiled through the teachings of this sect. Great emphasis is also placed on the interpretation of dreams and on “soul travel,” which is called “the secret path to God.” Through this experience a person can ultimately achieve omniscience. It can only be taught by a Living ECK Master.

Students of ECKANKAR are also trained to meditate on the current “Mahanta” (the ECK master) until he appears to them in a radiant form. Being in the presence of the “Mahanta” burns away negative karma and grants followers of this path a quicker entry into God-realization. What constitutes moral behavior is an individual discovery and decision, established by a person’s inner authority. Souls can never be lost, but they can forget who they are.

Paul Twitchell, the leader of this sect, taught that it is not possible to enter the Kingdom of God except through the teachings of ECKANKAR. In a book written by him, “ECK and Music,” he explains that the ECK is the Way and without this heavenly music (the WORD) no one can reach God again. Though ECKANKAR emphasizes the necessity of each seeker going through a “Mahanta,” Twitchell concedes, “…the whole truth is…that we must find our own way to God. There is no teacher, living or past, who can give us the actual understanding of truth.”¹

1 Paul Twitchell, The Flute of God (Minneapolis: ECKANKAR, 1969) p. 11.

Gnosticism: Salvation is a process of achieving enlightenment through the acquisition of esoteric knowledge (gnosis).

Helen Schucman (A Course in Miracles): “Salvation is nothing more than right-mindedness.”¹ “Never forget that the Sonship is your salvation, for the Sonship is your Self…Your Self does not need salvation, but your mind needs to learn what salvation is. You are not saved from anything, but you are saved for glory.”²

“When you realize that all guilt is solely an invention of your mind, you also realize that guilt and salvation must be in the same place. In understanding this you are saved.”³ “My salvation comes from me. It cannot come from anywhere else…Within me is the world’s salvation and my own.”⁴

Referencing Christian doctrine, Schucman insists “the crucifixion had no part in the Atonement.”⁵ Instead, when we forgive ourselves, when we receive forgiveness from fellow human beings, or when we extend forgiveness to others, we are participating in, and perpetuating, ‘the Atonement.’ “Forgiveness is for God and toward God, but not of Him. It is impossible to think of anything He created that could need forgiveness. Forgiveness then is an illusion…a kind of happy fiction, a way in which the unknowing bridge the gap between their perception and the truth.”⁶

ISKCON (International Society of Krishna Consciousness): According to the teachings of A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada, the world is now in a lengthy era of degeneration called the Kali Yuga (“the dark age”). Liberation of the soul at this time can only be accom-plished by kirtana: reciting the Hare Krishna chant. Most dedicated adherents chant this mantra on each of 108 japa beads, sixteen times a day.

Numerous rules govern the life of Krishna’s followers, such as: purificaton of desire, mandatory vegetarianism (including exclusion of onion and garlic from the diet), and abstinence from drugs, alcohol and caffeine. Devotees place thirteen symbolic marks on their bodies daily using special clay. Men are encouraged to shave their heads leaving a sikha (similar to a ‘pony tail’) by which Krishna can pull them up to heaven if he chooses. According to Swami Prabhupada, “To the perfect devotee, everything is spiritual (sarvam khalv idam brahma). So, we have to train our eyes to see Krsna everywhere. And this training is devotional service to Krsna, which is a process of purification.”¹

According to Swami Prabhupada, “The preliminary qualification for going back to Godhead is given in the Bhagavad-Gita [15.5]: “One who is free from illusion, false prestige, and false association, who understands the eternal, who is done with material lust and is free from the duality of happiness and distress, and who knows how to surrender unto the Supreme Person attains that eternal kingdom.””² Echoing Caitanya, originator of the movement emphasizing devotion to Krishna, Swami Prabhupada asserted, “The actual identity of every living creature is that he is the eternal servant of God. If one thinks like that-“I am no one else’s servant; my business is to serve God”-then he is liberated.”³

Kabbala (Mystical Judaism): Salvation consists of the ascent of the soul, through various religious disciplines, from the material world (Asiyyah) to the supernal world (Atzilut). According to the Sefer Yezeriah (the Book of Creation) the goal is to reach the realm of God (Ein Sof) by meditating on the thirty-two paths. These are made up of the ten Sefirot (emanations of God) plus the twenty-two connections between the Sefirot. Originally, “ten” merely related to the foundational numbers and “twenty-two” to the letters in the Hebrew alphabet. Later, these came to be interpreted as “divine potencies.” The Kabbala also teaches fifty gates of understanding through which a person must pass in to achieve enlightenment. Transmigration of the soul is not accepted in all Kabbalistic schools. However, among those who do, a belief is sometimes embraced that a person’s predestined mission in life must be fulfilled in order to avoid rebirth.

Kriya Yoga (Paramahansa Yogananda): Taught that man has three bodies from which Consciousness must be delivered, the physical body, the astral body and the causal body. “When all desires are conquered by meditation, the three body-prisons are dissolved; the soul becomes Spirit.”¹ He also taught that only in very rare cases does a soul regress to an animal state. Final liberation is achieved when a person becomes Self-realized. This is only accomplished by unceasing devotion to God.

1 Paramahansa Yogananda, God Talks with Arjuna, The Bhagavad Gita (Los Angeles, California: Self-Realization Fellowship, sec. ed., 1999) pp. 213-214.

Kundalini Yoga (Yogi Bhajan): “If you want to get out of your karma there is only one way, vibrate the Nam. The Nam is the vibration of the praise of infinity.”¹ This quote is an echo of Sikh doctrine. The word Nam, meaning “name,” is usually combined with Sat, meaning “true.” Sat Nam or “True Name” is the main designation for God in Sikhism. Yogi Bhajan also taught, “Who is the savior? It is your own higher consciousness which can save you from your own lower consciousness.”²

Meher Baba: “Do not search for God outside of you. God can only be found within you, for his only abode is the heart.”¹ In his book, “God Speaks,” Baba declares that there are as many ways to God as there are souls. In another book, he explains, “Your own religion, if put into practice, is sufficient to bring salvation to you. It is a mistake to change one’s own religion for that of another. The surroundings and circumstances in which you find yourself are best suited to work out your destiny or to exhaust your past karma.”² Salvation or liberation is attained when the reincarnation process ends and the soul experiences oneness with God. Baba was adamant in insisting that except for the very first soul, in order to reach Enlightenment (God-Consciousness, Self-Realization), all souls must have the help of a God-realized Perfect Master or the Avatar. So it is vitally important in life to find that Master and to serve him or her in love and obedience.

Scientology: Promotes the belief that man is basically good, and that his spiritual salvation is dependent upon: (1) Himself, (2) Relationships with others (family, friends, co-workers, other church members, etc.), and (3) Relationship to the universe as a whole.

“The road to spiritual freedom” is that process by which an adherent becomes a “Clear.” This is the objective of every Scientologist, accomplished by the removal of “engrams.” This last term refers to the negative, subconscious perceptions, held in the memory bank of the reactive mind, that continually prevent a person from making healthy, right, good decisions in the analytical mind. (See “Scientology” under The Nature of Man.) By removing these “engrams,” these repressed negative memories that create emotional and mental blocks, a person can live a more fulfilling, happy, stable, creative, powerful life. The thetan (the ‘higher Self’) is then in a place of ascendancy and control.

Very precise techniques have been developed, called “Dianetics” (lit. through the soul), aimed at accomplishing this goal. It involves aspirants participating in “auditing sessions” in which the “auditor” analyzes the reactions of the preclear to various questions that are posed while the latter is holding an “electropsychometer” or E-meter. Once areas of “charge” or upset are located and examined, the auditor and the preclear work together to “erase” those engrams, thus lifting the preclear to a higher state of awareness. During the auditing sessions, preclears experience many realizations about life called “cognitions.” Once cleared of engrams, a person can embark on a spiritual journey of increased awareness and enlightenment, the ultimate goal of which is freedom from the endless chain of physical birth-death and personal, spiritual immortality.

A further defining of existence by the “Eight Dynamics” brings order and harmony in life. These “dynamics” concern man’s passion to survive as and through: (1) Self, (2) Family, (3) Groups, (4) Mankind, (5) All living things, (6) The physical universe, (7) The spiritual universe, and (8) God (Infinity). Scientologists seek optimum survival along all eight of these dynamic urges. Evil can be defined as that which is destructive to the “Eight Dynamics”’; good can be defined as that which is constructive to the “Eight Dynamics.” Scientologists believe that the spiritual freedom attainable through this approach has been “sought throughout history but never attainable before Dianetics.”¹

1 Church of Scientology International, What is Scientology? (Los Angeles, California: Bridge Publications, Inc., 1993, 1998) p. 66.

Sufism (Mystical Islam): Salvation or liberation comes by overcoming the false ego (nafs) and achieving oneness with God. A foundational, dual goal of a Sufi is fana (dying or melting into God by eradicating the human self and its attributes) and baqa (living in God and attaining divine attributes).¹ When fana is achieved, the worshipper is absorbed into God. The present-day author, Kabir Helminski, emphasizes the Sufi gateway to this state: “Only Love can tame the ego and bring it into the service of Love…In order to really love, our ego structure has to dissolve and re-form on a new basis…Love then re-creates the self.”²

There are three main aspects of spiritual life: fikr-meditation, tawakkul-total reliance on God, and dhikr-perpetual remembrance of God. Sufis recommend beginning this spiritual journey by worshipping God as the “Beloved” or “Friend.” Final enlightenment comes when “there is no longer that difference which a worshipper makes between himself and God; as Khusrau the Persian poet says, ‘When I have become Thee and Thou hast become me…Beloved, there is no difference between I and Thou’.”³ The revered Sufi poet, Rumi, often drew attention to this concept. He disclosed, “I’ve spent my life, my heart and my eyes this way. I used to think that love and beloved are different. I know now they are the same. I was seeing two in one.”⁴

Various means of achieving this state are utilized, including the whirling dance of the dervishes and the practice of the “remembrance of God.” The latter is especially accomplished by chanting and repeating the ninety-nine names for God found in the Qur’an. Yet even though paradise is the longing of every Sufi, they seek to be motivated not by fear of hell or love of paradise, but by an overwhelming love of God.

“There are four stages of practice and understanding in Sufism-shariah (religious law), tariqah (the mystical path), haqiqah (Truth), and Marifah (Gnosis). Each is built upon the stages that go before.”⁵ Shariah is a term for the teachings of Islam, the moral and ethical rules that have already been spoken. Tariqah means, in essence, the path in the desert that leads to the oasis (the experience of truth and reality). Haqiqah is the experience of the mystical states of Sufism, an inward experience of the presence of God. Marifah (Gnosis) is the highest state of revelation knowledge and wisdom, even beyond Haqiqah. During this earthly sojourn, there are “three great blessings given to those who are lovers of God. They are islam (submission), iman (faith), and ihsan (awareness of God)…Ihsan means “to act beautifully.” The essence of the word is “to worship God as if you see Him. The person who fully develops ihsan is aware of God at all times and has reached the goal of Sufism.”⁶

Theosophy: Liberation comes by overcoming negative karma and achieving release from the cycle of reincarnation. It is salvation by self-effort. Similar to the Buddhist idea of bodhisattvas, Theosophists believe in Nirmanakayas, highly evolved beings who have a right to enter Nirvana, but renounce such a privilege out of compassion for the human race. These “have no right to interfere with karma, and can only advise and inspire mortals for the general good.”¹

Annie Besant, a principal leader, taught that seekers after truth should “surrender all the fallacious ideas of forgiveness, vicarious atonement, divine mercy, and the rest of the opiates which superstition offers to the sinner.”² Co-founder Helena Blavatsky also insisted such beliefs are “dangerous dogma”³ and that in all reality, “every Ego…becomes its own Saviour.”⁴ When asked if God can forgive sin, Blavatsky responded, “This is what Christianity teaches, and what we combat.” She also rejected the notion that “God’s mercy is boundless and unfathomable.”⁵ Human beings do not need mercy; they need enlightenment. The promise is also given that, “Every noble thought and every unselfish deed are steppingstones to the higher and more glorious planes of being.”⁶

Transcendental Meditation (Maharishi Mahesh Yogi): This worldview teaches there are seven states of consciousness: (1) Waking-Jagrat Chetana; (2) Dreaming-Swapn Chetana; (3) Sleeping-Sushupti Chetana; (4) Transcendental Consciousness-Turiya Chetana; (5) Cosmic Consciousness-Turiyatit Chetana; (6) God Consciousness-Bhagavat Chetana; (7) Unity Consciousness-Brahmi Chetana.¹ Complete liberation comes when the highest states of consciousness are achieved.

Maharishi Mahesh Yogi counters the traditional belief that extreme renunciation and detachment are necessary for the attaining of enlightenment. In his commentary on the Bhagavad-Gita, he claims this view is a “complete distortion of Indian philosophy.”² Some TM advocates may practice a life of strict renunciation, while others may function in a secular world. Both paths are acceptable, being a matter of personal choice.

Another unique point of view concerns the attaining of the state of Samadhi. While many Far Eastern worldviews maintain that Samadhi is the end result of adhering to all the various stages of yogic self-discipline, Maharishi insists, “The practice of yoga should start with Samadhi.”³ In other words, seekers of God should begin with a consciousness of their separateness from a world of action and their oneness with God, then all other disciplines and all other strivings toward virtuous character become an automatic and simultaneous outgrowth of this high awareness level.

United Church of Religious Science (Dr. Ernest Holmes): “We have tried to show that there is no sin but a mistake and no punishment but a consequence. The Law of cause and effect. Sin is merely missing the mark. God does not punish sin. As we correct our mistakes, we forgive our own sins.”¹ “True salvation comes only through true enlightenment, through a more conscious and more complete union of our lives with the Invisible.”² Dr. Holmes also offered, “When any individual recognizes his true union with the Infinite, he automatically becomes the Christ.”³

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