THE WHEEL OF DHARMA—The Sanskrit word dharma means, "that which is established." It refers to both doctrine and duty: the way of life a person embraces in order to achieve enlightenment. Buddhists are taught to take refuge in "the dharma": the teachings of Buddha. It is believed that Buddha's instructions to his disciples 'set the wheel of dharma in motion.'

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Buddhism

    Around 528 B.C. Buddhism was founded by Siddhartha Gautama (later to be known as Buddha). Siddhartha’s father, Suddhodana, was an Indian rajah, the head of the Sakya warrior caste. Legend has it that prior to Gautama’s birth, his mother, Mahamaya, dreamed a beautiful silver-white elephant with six tusks entered her womb from the side. The Vedic priests interpreted this to mean that she would have a son who would either be a universal monarch or a great Buddha. Therefore, she named him Siddhartha, meaning one whose aim is accomplished.

     Though his family was elite, wealthy and influential, Siddhartha found his royal heritage empty and unfulfilling. He left in search of enlightenment, adopting the life of a wandering monk. Siddhartha rejected traditional Hinduism because he found the Hindu caste system repellant, extreme Hindu asceticism futile and the sensuality of the Hindu gods unacceptable.

     The turning point in his life came while meditating under a fig tree (later to be called the “Bodhi Tree”—the tree of wisdom). Siddhartha claimed to receive the experience of Nirvana (enlightenment). Hence, he was called the “Buddha,” the “enlightened one.” He then began preaching his message of liberation from suffering, an approach he called the “Middle Path.” He began with five disciples and taught for about 50 years. He lived to be 80 years old. There are many sects in Buddhism. Those mentioned in the book and this website include: Theravada, Mahayana, Amidha, Nichiren, Zen and Tibetan Buddhism.

     The main sources of Scriptural inspiration for Buddhists are the Tripitaka (the Three Baskets). These are three collections of writings: the Sutra Pitaka (primarily dialogues between Buddha and other people), Vinaya Pitaka (over 225 rules that govern the monastic path), and Abhidharma Pitaka (philosophical and doctrinal explanations and categorizations).

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Doctrinal Stance on the Seven Pillars of Wisdom

The Origin and Nature of the Universe

Buddhism: This worldview is a non-theistic approach to existence of universe (it has been described as “atheistic monism”). “The world exists because of causal actions, all things are produced by causal actions and all beings are governed and bound by causal actions. They are fixed like the rolling wheel of a cart, fixed by the pin of its axle shaft.” (Sutta-Nipata 654) The universe was not ‘created’; neither is it permanent.

Three things identify the true nature of this world: impermanence (anitya, also spelled anicca); suffering (dukkha); and insubstantiality or not-self (anatman or anatta). Nyanaponika Thera warns, “Ignoring or distorting the three basic facts ultimately leads only to frustration, disappointment and despair…the clear comprehension of impermanence, suffering and not-self will bring us a saner outlook on life. It will free us from unrealistic expectations, bestow a courageous acceptance…against the lure of deluded assumptions and beliefs…By seeing thus, detachment will grow, bringing greater freedom from egoistic clinging…”¹

A fourth doctrine that further identifies the nature of things is shunyata, a word meaning “emptiness.” This term communicates that all things are “empty” of lasting value or that they are “empty” of anything substantive. All things are mere ‘appearances,’ temporary illusions, possessing no lasting reality or substance. So in essence, they are “empty.” Realizing this as the basic character of the material world imparts an attitude of detachment that ultimately serves to free a person from suffering. In conclusion, therefore, even though interpretations of these terms may differ slightly from one Buddhist school to another, the following line of logic is generally accepted-All things are empty (shunyata) and impermanent (anicca), devoid of an essence (anatman) and marked by suffering (dukkha). Buddhists contend that such a view is neither optimistic nor pessimistic; it is simply realistic.

1 Nyanaponika Thera, “Seeing Things as They Are,” An Introduction to the Buddha and His Teachings, Samuel Bercholz, ed., and Sherab Chodzin Kohn, ed., (New York: Barnes and Noble Books, Inc., by arrangement with Shambhala Publications, Inc., 1997) p. 85.

The Nature of God  

Buddhism: There are diverse opinions within the Buddhist camp concerning the nature of Ultimate Reality. The oldest sect, Theravada Buddhism (called the Lesser Vehicle), is often labeled atheistic because Buddha did not train his disciples to worship any deity. However, “ancient Buddhist doctrines do not deny the existence of gods.” On the contrary, Buddha acknowledged the existence of gods inhabiting the cosmos, yet he insisted that they are “impermanent like all other living beings. Thus, they too must escape rebirth through nirvana.”¹ It is possible that Buddha had contempt for the Indian concept of gods and goddesses because they indulged in sensual behavior or exhibited human frailties. Some Buddhists go a step further, explaining like Reginald Ray-”that while they [deities] appear to exist on a relative level, they have no final reality. Instead they are projections of the deepest qualities of our own human nature.”² Unlike some other branches of Buddhism, Theravada Buddhists do not revere Buddha as a god. He is considered merely a teacher, an enlightened master. Most would agree that even speculating about the nature of God is useless, a hindrance to achieving enlightenment.

Mahayana Buddhism (called the Greater Vehicle) contains many different schools. Zen Buddhism professes that there is no god who can assist a seeker in achieving enlightenment (satori) or final extinction (paranirvana). Yet other Mahayana schools emphasize that Gautama Buddha was a mere earthly manifestation of a transcendent, celestial Buddha, who is the highest deity. Ultimate Reality is shunya (the void)-an impersonal cosmic force that expresses itself through various gods, buddhas and bodhisattvas who are worshipped. Bodhisattvas are enlightened beings who delay Nirvana in order to aid others in their spiritual evolution.

Pure Land Buddhists worship Amida Buddha, (different than the Gautama Buddha) as a personal savior god. He is also called Amitabha. He was originally a monk, Dharmakara, who attained Buddhahood. Nichiren Buddhists place their faith in Nichiren, a thirteenth century Japanese monk, who is believed to be a reincarnation of Jogyo. According to this sect, Jogyo was a bodhisattva (one who attains Buddhahood but delays passing into Nirvana in order to bring spiritual assistance to others through his boundless supply of good merits). Tibetan Buddhism promotes worshipful devotion to a long line of Dalai Lamas. The most recent one, Tenzin Byatso, is the fourteenth and is presently exiled from Tibet. All Dalai Lamas are considered to be bodhisattvas, as well as incarnations of their predecessors. Tibetan Buddhists worship a pantheon of innumerable Buddhas, bodhisattvas, gods, goddesses and divine beings. Image worship is spurned in some branches of Buddhism, yet promoted in others.

The origin and Nature of Man

Bahá’í: Adam is considered the father of humankind and a “Manifestation of God.” (See explanation under Question #9 in Part 4.) The biblical story of Adam and Eve is taught to be symbolic, not literal, with Eve serving as a type of Adam’s own soul and the serpent, an emblem of attachment to the world.

Man is bi-partite, comprised of a “physical body and a non-material, rational soul (or human spirit).”¹ He is made in the image of God and is capable of reflecting all of God’s names and attributes. Man is basically good, not in a state of depravity because of an inherited sin status (Original Sin). He possesses both an angelic and an animal nature, and can yield to one or the other. “Self-love is ‘kneaded’ into the human clay,” so human beings must be trained, especially through religion, to reach for higher ideals.² The body is subject to limitations and death, but the soul is unlimited and immortal.

The Nature of Salvation, Liberation or Enlightenment

Buddhism: There are differences of opinion within the various Buddhist sects on this subject. Generally and foundationally speaking, Buddha taught that salvation or liberation is attained, not by prayer, or grace or sacrifice, but by knowledge. Originally, in Theravada Buddhism (the ‘Lesser Vehicle’) it was necessary to be a monk to attain salvation (liberation from rebirth). The Buddhist monk was required to affirm his trust in the ‘Three Refuges’: (1) the Buddha; (2) the Dharma (the doctrine); (3) the Sangha (the monastic order). The great majority of Buddhists belong to a sect that developed later called Mahayana Buddhism (the ‘Greater Vehicle’). This branch of Buddhism teaches that enlightenment is available for all Buddhists: monks and lay people alike. In both sects, the attainment of an enlightened status comes primarily by following “The Eightfold Path”: (1) Right Knowledge; (2) Right Thought; (3) Right Speech; (4) Right Conduct; (5) Right Livelihood; (6) Right Effort; (7) Right Mindfulness; (8) Right Meditation. So for the majority of Buddhists, salvation is a product of self-effort. Buddha warned of five mental hazards and ten fetters which must be conquered before liberation comes. Some of these include: “belief in a self, belief in the efficacy of good works, desire for a future life in heaven, pride and ignorance.”[1]

     Amidha Buddhism is uniquely different, instructing its followers to place their trust in the power and compassion of Amida Buddha (the Buddha of infinite light, different than Gautama Buddha) in order to be saved. Nichiren Buddhism obligates its adherents to chant an incantation from the Lotus Sutra in order to achieve liberation. Zen Buddhism promotes the perfecting of certain meditation techniques. One sect, Jodo-Shinshu, the True School of the Pure Land, teaches that no Buddhist, or anyone else, can be saved unless they possess faith in the merits of Amida Buddha (also called Amitabha).

     Final liberation for any Buddhist is Nirvana. This could be described as non-being—“the extinction of personal existence by absorption into pure Being.”[2] Nirvana is passionless peace, detached serenity, cessation of all desire, freedom from both pain and pleasure. Most Buddhists resist the idea that Nirvana means the annihilation of the soul; for they do not believe there is a soul to annihilate. One popular Vietnamese Buddhist writer, Thich Nhat Hanh, explains Nirvana to be “the extinction of ideas and concepts and suffering based on ideas and concepts; the ultimate dimension of reality.”[3] In order to attain Nirvana a person must overcome the “three unwholesome roots—desire, hatred and delusion.”[4]

     Thich Nhat Hanh also offers that there are 84,000 dharma doors (“entries into the stream of the Buddha’s teaching and realization”). He also advises “monks and laypersons who practice well always observe the Five Wonderful Precepts, the 38 Bodhisattva Precepts, or the 250 Pratimoksa Precepts.”[5] Contrary to Jainism, another offshoot of Hinduism, Buddha taught that women are just as capable of enlightenment as men.

Dimensions or Planes of Existence

Buddhism: Modern Buddhism (especially Western Reformed) tends to de-emphasize subjects like this, placing greater importance on pursuits like ‘mindfulness,’ ‘meditation,’ ‘ethics’ and ‘compassion.” Consequently, some groups might not agree with the concepts listed below, or they may interpret them differently. Buddha himself discouraged speculation on cosmological issues. As the movement grew, however, later Buddhists developed what has become a traditional belief involving 31 planes of existence. These spheres provide paradise-like dwelling places for the highest of spiritual beings, this natural world for animals and living humans, and purgatory-like, hellish existences for the lowest entities.

     Three main divisions exist within the portion of the universe affected by samsara (the cycle of rebirths). Arupa-dhatu (“the sphere of formlessness”) is the highest plane of existence. It is totally non-material, populated by highly evolved, formless brahma-deities occupied in the deepest states of contemplation. One source explains that this plane of existence is at the “summit” of the universe, consisting of “four realms of purely mental rebirth, without form.”[1]

     Next comes Rupa-dhatu (“the sphere of form”). It contains only the subtlest type of material substance. In this realm there are numerous deities many of whom are recognized personalities in Buddhist mythology. From this sphere certain brahma-deities descend, assuming human form, to repopulate the earth after it passes through the cycle of destruction and recreation.

     The lowest sphere is called Kama-dhatu (“the sphere of desire”). In Kama-dhatu there are six principal divisions of rebirth called gatis (“destinies”): those of (1) gods; (2) demi-gods (asuras, rebel gods, demonic beings); (3) humans; (4) animals; (5) hungry ghosts (pretas, beings who are tortured with continual hunger and thirst) or (6) hell-beings (those confined to various hells). Kama-dhatu contains the Tusita Heaven, where the next Buddha, referred to as Maitreya, awaits his appointed time to come to earth. It also contains the Heaven of the Thirty-Three Gods and the Heaven of the Four Guardian Kings.

The Spiritual Journey and Ultimate Destiny of Man

Buddhism: Buddhists do not believe in a soul. They believe in five aggregates that form to make a human being. These aggregates do not pass from one life to the next. Instead, a certain ‘unconscious disposition,’ with its attached karma accumulated from past existences, is transferred at each incarnation. For this cause, the word “re-manifestation” may be a better choice than the word “reincarnation.” The word “reincarnation” implies a preexistent ‘self’ that incarnates.

     All forms of Buddhism teach numerous re-manifestations until Nirvana is attained (a word meaning “to blow out”). So the final destiny of man is like the blowing out of a candle. Such terminology does not imply the annihilation of ‘self,’ because according to Buddhist doctrine there is no ‘self’ to annihilate. Rather, it is end of karma, the final annihilation of desire and absorption into pure Being.

     Buddha taught his disciples that there are 12 karma formations from which men must be freed to escape the wheel of rebirth. Nirvana can be attained during a person’s earthly life; Parinirvana is that final, complete liberation that takes place at the death of those who have attained this ultimate state.

     A dominant teaching in Buddhism concerns 31 planes of existence categorized into six principal divisions: the realm of (1) gods; (2) demi-gods (asuras, rebel gods); (3) humans; (4) animals; (5) hungry ghosts (pretas, beings who are tortured with continual hunger and thirst) or (6) hell-beings (those confined to various hells). At the “summit” of the universe there are also “four realms of purely mental rebirth, without form.”[1] Buddha said, “Just as there are few pleasant parks and lakes, but many dense thickets and inaccessible mountains, so are there few beings who will be reborn among men. More numerous are those who will be reborn in purgatory.” (Anguttara Nikaya 1.19)

     Theravada Buddhism emphasizes the primary goal of becoming an arhat (“one who is worthy”). Such a perfected and saintly person has achieved a state of enlightenment and will not experience rebirth. Mahayana Buddhism argues that the goal of a good Buddhist should be the role of a bodhisattva. This is a perfected person who has a right to enter Nirvana, but declines, choosing rather to remain in the cycle of rebirths in order to aid others in their spiritual development. Rebirth for a bodhisattva does not have to take place in the material; it can continue on in higher realms spheres of existence. (See “Buddhism” under The Nature of Salvation, Liberation or Enlightenment.)

     Amida Buddhism teaches that after death, Amida Buddha (different than Gautama Buddha) will take good Buddhists to a paradise-like place he created called “the Pure Land.” They will abide there until they attain Nirvana. Traditional Buddhism does not accept this. Tibetan Buddhism: According to “The Tibetan Book of the Dead” (Bardo Thodrol) there is an interval of 49 days between death and rebirth. After seven days in this intermediate “bardo” state, 42 Peaceful Deities surround the deceased in a circular pattern referred to as a mandala. After another seven days, this mandala dissolves and is replaced by 58 Wrathful Deities with hideous appearances (blood-drinking, flesh-eating, demonic beings). Some Buddhists believe these deities are merely aspects of the deceased person’s own mind or symbolic expressions of past karma.

     The Tibetans believe that the consciousness of the deceased person can be contacted during this interim. So normally a Lama (a spiritual leader, a guru) performs special ceremonies to provide guidance through the maze of bewildering, and at times, horrifying spiritual experiences awaiting beyond the grave. If these images are correctly identified, the deceased person will merge with the state of enlightened consciousness represented by them. If, because ignorance or fear, this proves impossible, the disembodied individual will plunge deeper into the bardo realms.

     Eventually, the Peaceful and Wrathful Deities fade from view. As the wheel of samsara turns, the deceased person enters the third and final bardo state: the “Bardo of Becoming.” A mental body complete with all five senses is formed and a descent toward rebirth begins.[2] Some 49 days after death the condition of the soul is judged by an entity named Emma, who determines which of the six realms the deceased will enter upon rebirth. So it is of high importance that at the climax of the funeral ceremony, a picture of the deceased (either a block print or drawing on white paper) is burned as the Lama pronounces that the sins of that person have been absolved.

Cycles, Ages and the Ultimate State of the Universe

Buddhism: A major emphasis is the doctrine of “Emptiness” (shunyata): the understanding that nothing has lasting value or significance. Buddhists also promote the related concept of “Impermanence” (anicca): the belief that nothing will exist permanently. “Along with “suffering” (dukkha) and “no-soul” (anatta), “impermanence” (anicca) is the third pillar of the Buddhist philosophy…People should not be attached to anything, including their ideas and perceptions of themselves because nothing is permanent.”[1] The unique identity of a person is only a temporary condition brought about by the illusion of this realm. Ultimately all things will dissolve into non-being, including the universe in which we live. However, after each dissolution of the universe, another cycle of manifestation takes place, a condition that persists for eternity.

     On the cover of the book is the dharma wheel symbol for Buddhism, surrounded by flames. The fire is symbolic of Buddha’s first sermon to his ascetic colleagues. It has  been titled “The Fire Sermon,” a message that stressed how “insubstantial things in this world are, how like a fire they exist only through the process of burning.”[2]

     A cyclical view of the future is also promoted in Buddhism (the details of which may not be accepted by all Buddhists). The word “kalpa” signifies an extremely lengthy period of time. A kalpa is “divided into four parts: the arising of a universe, the continuation of the arisen universe, the demise of that universe, the continuation of chaos.”[3] These four phases constitute a “great kalpa” (mahakalpa). It is further divided into 20 small kalpas. The small kalpa is then sub-divided into four ages: iron, copper, silver and gold.

     “During the generational period of a small kalpa, human lifespan increase by one year every hundred years until it has reached 84 thousand years…In the period of decline of a small kalpa, which is divided into phases of plague, war, and famine, human lifespan decreases to ten years...”[4]

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