THE YIN-YANG SYMBOL—In this worldview, the opposite forces underlying all things are termed yin and yang. Taoists believe that these complement each other. Yin is associated with darkness, negative, passivity, earth, winter and the female. Yang is representative of light, positive, activity, heaven, summer and the male. Each force contains the seed of its opposite.

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Taoism

     Pronounced “Dowism,” this Chinese philosophical and religious worldview is believed to have begun around the sixth century B.C. Its founder was Lao-Tzu, a contemporary of Confucius, whose name means either “wise old child” or “old master.” Certain traditions state that Lao-Tzu actually emerged from the womb a white-haired philosopher, after being carried 72 years in the womb of his mother. Some scholars believe he is only a legendary figure. However, according to the Shih-chi, he was actually a custodian of the archives in the court of the King of Chou. Disagreeable situations in this royal court motivated Lao-Tzu to resign and travel west.

     At the mountain pass of Hsien-ku he was constrained by Yin Hsi, the guardian of that pass, to preserve his views by putting them into writing. The result was the Tao-te Ching, a document made up of 5,000 pictograms. It is the main sacred text on which this religion is based. After transferring his beliefs to paper, Lao-Tzu disappears, walking off the pages of history. He was later deified by his followers, some even suggesting that he was a manifestation of the primordial chaos and that he has reincarnated numerous times in order to guide the human race with his teaching. Another famous and greatly influential leader in Taoism is Chuang-tzu (369-286 B.C.).

     Eva Wong, in The Shambhala Guide to Taoism, identifies five different and primary paths within Taoism: Magical Taoism (the Way of Power), Divinational Taoism (the Way of Seeing), Ceremonial Taoism (the Way of Devotion), Internal-Alchemical Taoism (the Way of Transformation), and Action and Karma Taoism (the Way of Right Action).

     The Tao-te Ching describes the Source of all things as being Tao (meaning “the Way”). It is “eternal, nameless.” Yet whenever it is manifested, it is given “different names.” (Tao-te Ching 1, 32) Any name given to a manifestation of Tao is only earthly and temporary—“The name that can be named is not the eternal name.” (Tao-te Ching 1). On the highest level, Ultimate Reality is an impersonal energy force.

     In Taoism, the secret to a successful life is to come into harmony with Tao. This harmonious union is called wu-wei (quiet non-striving). The superiority of this way of life is compared to water (that appears shapeless and weak) wearing away stone (that appears permanent and strong). The “parent of all teachings” is that “the violent man will come to a violent end.” (Tao-te Ching 42, 78) The foundational sacred texts of this religion are the Tao-te Ching, written by Lao-Tzu, and the Zhuangzi, named after its author. (Note: there are various spellings in English of these two books.)

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Doctrinal Stance on the Seven Pillars of Wisdom

The Origin and Nature of the Universe

Taoism: Taoism is pantheistic in its view of the material world. It explains the origin of creation as follows: “[Tao] is its own source, its own root. Before heaven and earth existed it was there, firm from ancient times. It gave spirituality to the spirits and gods; it gave birth to heaven and to earth.” (Chuang-Tzu 6) “It is Nameless…the origin of Heaven and earth.” Yet it is “Namable…the mother of all things.” (Tao-te Ching 1) The primal ‘Life Force,’ the cosmic energy that initiated all things and continues to permeate creation is referred to as Ch’i (pronounced “key”).

A reliable source of orthodox beliefs speaks of a “Primordial Breath” that split into two parts: the light yang breath brought forth heaven; the heavier yin breath formed earth.¹ It also explains how “pure energy rose up [out of the primordial chaos] and became heaven, turbid energy sank down and became earth, and the conjoined energies in the middle became yin and yang” [which brought forth humanity]. (Huai-nan-tzu 3)

In certain sacred texts Lao-Tzu, the founder of Taoism, is deified as the original personification of the Tao, who brought forth creation and abides with all men. Sacred literature also speaks of “three basic energies of creation-mysterious, beginning, and primordial” that combined to make a “heavenly sound” (similar to the Hindu concept of the word “OM”). Also, from the three basic energies, over vast periods of time, were brought forth the Three Treasure Lords (also called “the Three Pure Ones” and “the Celestial Lords of the Three Pure Realms”). They are-the Lord of Heavenly Treasure, the Lord of Numinous Treasure, and the Lord of Spirit Treasure. These three Original Deities were emanated from Lao-chün (the deified aspect of the founder, Lao-tzu). Together these deities brought forth the nine energies out of which came all of creation.²

Coincidental with the formation of earth was the creation of the first man, named Pangu. When this progenitor of the human race died, his body was transformed into various parts of the material world: “His breath became the wind and clouds; His voice became the thunder. His left eye was the sun; His right eye was the moon. His four limbs became the four compass points…His blood and body liquid turned into streams and rivers. His muscles and sinews became solid earth…His hair turned into stars. His body hair turned into grass and trees. His teeth and bones were transformed into gold and minerals…His sweat was the rain and moisture of the land. The germs in his body were carried off by the wind; they became the mass of the people.” (from the Yuanqi Lun)³

The Nature of God  

Taoism: Lao-Tzu, founder of Taoism (pronounced “Dowism”) explained his interpretation of Ultimate Reality in the following terms: “There was something undifferentiated and yet complete, which existed before heaven and earth. Soundless and formless, it depends on nothing and does not change. It operates everywhere and is free from danger. It may be considered the mother of the universe. I do not know its name; I call it Tao.” (Tao-te Ching 25, emphasis by author)

Five times the governing principle of the universe is described in this passage, not as a he, but as an it. So Ultimate Reality in Taoism is not someone personal, but rather something impersonal, an existing order that guides all things. One source declares this to be simply the “rhythm of the universe.”¹ This Universal Principle is both yin and yang, negative and positive, passive and active, darkness and light. Though yin is not always synonymous with evil, the existence of evil would be assigned to the yin principle in creation. In contrast, good would be assigned to yang, its complementary opposite. (See the explanation of the yin-yang symbol on page 5.)

The word “Tao” means the Way. It speaks of ‘the way’ all things function in harmony, from the smallest atom to the largest swirling galaxy. Beyond human comprehension, “The cosmic Tao is invisible, inaudible, unnamable, undiscussable, inexpressible.”² The cosmic Tao is not a personal Creator and Lord to whom men are accountable or by whom men are ruled-“It [the Tao] creates them but never tries to own them…It raises them but never tries to control them. Herein lies its mysterious virtue.” (Tao-te Ching 51) Wu (Being) and Yu (Not-Being) are terms for the two aspects of the eternal Tao (the Seen and the Unseen, the Manifested and the Unmanifested). Yu (Not-Being) is not a reference to nothingness, but rather, an absence of observable characteristics.

Taoism is pluralistic. Many personal gods are worshipped. The founder of this religion, Lao-Tzu, is considered by many Taoists to be the highest of all deities. In this exalted role he is known as T’ai-shang Laochün. Viewed as the original personification or emanation of the Tao, he is sometimes known as the Emperor of the Undifferentiated Realm (Hun-yuan Huang-ti). Out of Lao-chün were emanated the Three Pure Ones (the Celestial Lords of the Three Pure Realms). Next come “the Jade Emperor, who passes judgment on mortals and decides their fate,” and the Mother Empress of the West, the goddess who “decides who attains immortality.”³

And there are many other deities worshipped in Taoism. Some have existed from various stages in creation, while many others are individuals who attained immortality or expressed great goodness during their earthly sojourn, thus obtaining a high place of recognition in the celestial world. To these personal gods Taoists pray hoping for divine intervention. Especially emphasized are the “the “Three Star Gods” (Shou Hsing, God of Longevity: Tsai Shen, God of Wealth; and Fu Shen, God of Happiness) and the “Eight Immortals.”

The origin and Nature of Man

Taoism: During the creation process, the Tao brought forth the first man, Pangu. After his death, various parts of his body became different parts of creation. The germs in his body were distributed by the wind throughout the world and became the masses of people. (See “Taoism” under The Origin and Nature of the Universe.) Because the various aspects of creation were originally made from the body of Pangu, in Taoism, each person’s body is compared to, and related to, various aspects of creation. This creates a sense of ‘connectedness’ between the creature and the creation. The vital essence of creation is called ch’i (pronounced “key”). As the ch’i flows through creation in diverse expressions, so it flows through the body in varied ways and by means of numerous invisible ‘meridians.’

At birth, “this internal energy is separated into three components: generative (ching), vital (ch’i) and spirit energy (shen).”¹ These are called “the Three Treasures,” “the Three Flowers and the Three Herbs.”² There are three “cauldrons” in the body in which these three types of energy are stored: lower, middle and upper. Associated with these “cauldrons” in human beings are three “Tan-t’iens” (Elixer Fields). Gates to these Elixer Fields are located along the spine.

Ch’i is expressed in creation and in humanity two main ways: in the complementary opposites of yin ch’i and yang ch’i. Because of this, each individual is described as possessing two kinds of souls: three hun souls, made up of yang ch’i (representing the superior spiritual and intellectual essence of a person); and seven po souls, made up of yin ch’i (the inferior, lower aspect of the human nature). So a total of ten souls reside in each human being. “The three spirit [yang] souls are located beneath the liver. They look like human beings and all wear green robes with yellow inner garments” [royal, courtly attire].³ Their names are Spiritual Guidance, Inner Radiance and Dark Essence. If these dominate a person’s character and actions, demonic activity is restrained, and troubles, misfortunes and suffering are averted.

“The seven material souls consist of the energy of yin and of evil. They are basically demons. They can make a person commit deadly evils…Through them people will completely lose all original purity and simplicity. These souls, far from looking like human beings are strangely formed devils…Their names are accordingly Corpse Dog, Arrow in Ambush, Bird Darkness, Devouring Robber, Flying Poison, Massive Pollution, and Stinky Lungs.”⁴ Though these material souls draw men toward defilement and depravity, they are necessary for physical survival. If these souls dominate a person, the ultimate end is illness and death. The only remedy is responding to the influence of the higher souls and striving toward those things that lead to immortality.

In Taoism, the human body is a microcosm, a small reflection of the cosmos as a whole. Therefore, just as there are three major divinities who rule the universe (the Celestial Emperor, the Cinnabar Sovereign and the Primordial King), so these three divinities reside in every human being’s body (respectively, in the head, the heart and the abdomen). “Together they supervise the twenty-four energies of the body and bring them in accord with the twenty-four deities of Great Tenuity.”⁵ These three yang-type divinities are “powerful good forces of the Dao, divine powers of longevity, good fortune, and immortality that can be called upon and utilized toward perfecting one’s inherent heavenly nature. They…assist the practitioner in his ascent to the divine.”⁶ There are also five spirits that protect the five internal organs of the body: the liver, lungs, heart, spleen and kidneys. “In the liver is the human spirit, in the lungs is the soul, in the heart is the seed of the immortal spirit, in the spleen is the intention, and in the kidneys is the generative energy.”⁷

Numerous “palaces” are in the body that provide dwelling places for various deities, such as the nine palaces in the head: (1) The Hall of Light-one inch inside the head between the eyes, residence of the three Gods of light; (2) The Grotto Chamber-one half inch behind the Hall of Light, residence of the Three Ones; (3) The Cinnabar Field-another one half inch deeper, dwelling of the three Highest Lords of the Universe; (4) The Flowing Pearl Palace-one half inch behind Cinnabar Field, housing the Flowing Pearl Deity: (5) The Palace of the Jade Emperor-one half inch behind the Pearl Palace, home to the Mother of Jade Truth. (6) The Celestial Court-located above the Hall of Light, residence of the Goddess of Highest Clarity; (7) The Palace of Ultimate Truth-found above the Grotto Chamber, containing the Lord of the Great Ultimate; (8) The Palace of Mysterious Cinnabar-above Cinnabar Field, residence of the Great One, of the Lord of the Central Yellow; (9) The Palace of the Great August One-discovered one inch above the Palace of Mysterious Cinnabar, housing the Great August One, the Highest Lord.⁸

There are also yin-type beings that dwell in the body of every person: primarily the “three deathbringers.” These are “a cross between demons and souls, who reside in the head, torso and lower body of the individual…Assisted by a group of parasites known as the nine worms.”⁹ Together, these make every attempt to bring a person under the influence of evil, lust, sickness, mental and emotional stress, aging and death. The name of the upper deathbringer is Peng Ju (also called Shouter); the middle deathbringer is Peng Zhi (also called Maker); the lower deathbringer is Peng Qiao (also called Junior).

The “nine worms,” on the other hand, are not spiritual, but literal. They are physical parasites, who act as “minions of the three deathbringers” to bring about the destruction of the individual. The nine worms are driven to accomplish this, knowing that they will actually feed on the corpses of those persons they successfully conquer. Virtuous behavior, meditation on the Three Major Divinities, and certain ritualistic vigils will counteract the three deathbringers and the nine worms, freeing humans from their influence and propelling them toward the desirable goal of immortality.¹⁰

The Nature of Salvation, Liberation or Enlightenment

Taoism: Because the Tao (the Principle that rules the universe) “never acts, yet nothing is left undone,” a passive life of creative inaction (quiet non-striving) is advocated for those seeking spiritual maturity. The model Taoist is calm and peaceful, like the Source of all things, the underlying flow of life. This ideal standard of living is called wu-wei.

Viewing the human family in its unity and expressing kindness and goodness impartially toward all is also encouraged, for “to know the eternal is enlightenment; not to know the eternal means to run blindly to disaster. He who knows the eternal is all-embracing. He who is all-embracing is impartial. To be impartial is to be kingly. To be kingly is to be heavenly. To be heavenly is to be one with the Tao. To be one with the Tao is to endure forever.” (Tao-te Ching 16)

A person achieves immortality when he rises above a sense-controlled existence, when he lives a virtuous life, when he abides by the standard of the Tao and is in harmony with his body. Such an individual is titled chen jen-a perfected person. In order to accomplish this, there are many ceremonies, magical rites, traditions, meditation practices and religious disciplines that a devoted Taoist will normally pursue. Different sects emphasize different means. For instance, Celestial Teachers Taoism emphasizes the use of talismans and incantations, especially to cure illnesses and ward off evil spirits.

Shang-ch’ing Taoism emphasizes “Keeping the One” (staying in harmony with the Tao) and “holding the guardian deities” (the San-yuan, the gods who live in the body).¹ Meditating on these deities-named the Three Pure Ones or the Three Primal Ones-replaces “the three deathbringers in the major energy centers of the body and make the person immortal.”² Once every two months the “deathbringers” have to “ascend to the heavens to make their report to the celestial administration” (the Jade Emperor).³ If a Taoist successfully keeps nightly vigils during at least seven such times, the “deathbringers” become emaciated and die, thus freeing a person from their influence. Fasting, abstinence from grains, stilling the mind and eliminating craving are also offered as means of overcoming these ‘monsters’ in the body.

Other unique esoteric practices promoting physical and spiritual well being include: (1) Absorbing the essence of the sun, moon, stars and vapor-and their related deities-through various meditative practices, in order to bring the microcosms of the body into harmony with the macrocosms of the universe; (2) Pursuing spiritual transformation through the gathering of, and preservation of, generative energy. Different sects claim this is accomplished by one of two approaches: either by the restraint or regulation of sexual practices (called “the Singular Path”) or by the absorbing of generative energy through involvement with multiple sexual partners (called “the Paired Path”). For the latter to be effective there must be “no love, no pleasure, and no desire” and the sexual act must be halted before orgasm occurs for the one seeking to accumulate generative energy.⁴ The energy gained by this procedure is of a lower nature and must be refined and transmuted into a higher form of vital energy to be physically and spiritually useful to the practitioner.

Dimensions or Planes of Existence

Taoism: On a basic level, there are nine layers of heaven and nine underworlds. An additional tenth level in the underworld serves as a final court (thus, a total of ten hell courts). The dead must pass through all of these levels in the underworld in order to progress to higher levels. The underworld, though acknowledged as a place of punishment, is also seen as a place of learning and rehabilitation. Its inhabitants are under the oversight and tutelage of Celestial Beings (Underworld Governors), who are aided by a staff of Good and Radiant Demons. The Lords of the Five Mountains are some of the most important underworld deities. They are the gatekeepers, who must be petitioned to open the gates, that the souls of the deceased might enter.

     Concerning the upper, celestial realms, a more detailed and expanded view of Taoist beliefs reveals thirty-six levels. These higher spheres are divided according to the Buddhist tradition of Three Worlds (six heavens in the World of Desire, eighteen heavens in the World of Form and four heavens in the World of Formlessness—twenty-eight in all). Those who inhabit these twenty-eight heavens are still subject to reincarnation.

The Spiritual Journey and Ultimate Destiny of Man

Taoism: Each human being has two souls (actually two groups of souls—three hun souls and seven po souls). At death, the hun soul ascends upward toward heaven, being the positive yang aspect of a person. According to popular belief, this aspect of a person can be accessed through the ancestral tablets found on the altar of a traditional Chinese home. However, after five to seven generations of ancestor worship, this hun soul (ancestral spirit—shen) reverts back to its original state, ‘dissolving’ into the cosmos. On the contrary, the po soul, being the negative yin aspect of a person, descends to the earth to abide with the dead physical body.

     Neither of these soulish destinations will be reached, though, if the prescribed burial rites and associated offerings have not been properly implemented. Instead, the disembodied spirit will haunt the living until the necessary rituals are satisfactorily performed. For instance, according to Chinese folklore, the spirit cannot pass over the river of death without money to pay the boatman. So money and clothes are burned during funeral ceremonies in order to translate these items, in a spiritual form, into the spirit realm. Food offerings are also supplied to the deceased as necessary sustenance for the continuation of existence.

     It is also believed that the po soul descends into the lower regions or hells, to be judged for all misdeeds and appropriately punished. Once arriving in the underworld, souls are brought before the Ten Magistrates who officiate over the Ten Tribunals of Hell. Each of these Underworld Courtrooms deals with different types of crimes or sins. Once judgment is administered, the necessary punishment is meted out. This involves passing through successive regions or layers of hell, according to the degree of guiltiness pronounced over the deceased person. No matter how long the punishment seems to last to the suffering soul, the time lapse per hell is seven earthly days. The deceased can only be contacted through various rituals for seven weeks (a total of forty-nine days in the first seven hells). In the remaining hells they are unreachable. Religious rites are performed to carry the deceased successfully through this difficult transitional experience. The final stage is entrance into the “Palace of Rebirth, where bridges lead to the five forms of rebirth—gods, human, animals, hungry ghosts, and hell-dwellers—and where all past memories are cleansed.”[1]

     At this climactic point, if the proper ceremonies have been performed and sins have been successfully expiated, it is possible that the soul can instead achieve permanent residence in a celestial state. Some philosophical Taoists speculate that the life or ch’i essence in a person can even go through a supernatural metamorphosis that transforms it into some other aspect of creation altogether.

     The primary goals of the serious, mystical Taoist are longevity and immortality. The disciplines that promote longevity (such as meditation, trance training, extreme diet regulations, etc.) aid a person in achieving immortality as well. Attaining immortality allows the devotee to escape the usual pattern of rebirth and the descent of the soul into the hell-realms after death.

     As a person matures spiritually, the three energies—generative, vital, and spirit—return to the original undifferentiated state of the Tao. “This undifferentiated vapor descends to the abdomen to form the immortal fetus.”[2] This initial stage of the sacred, spiritual ‘fetus’ incubating and developing lasts ten months and is called lien-hsu-ho-Tao. Then, if the process is not interrupted, the immortal fetus emerges from the ‘womb’ to become “the original spirit” (yuan-shen). It changes locations, rising from the abdominal area to the chest, to be further nourished and developed. Eventually the yuan-shen locates in the head, at times leaving the body from the top of the head on excursions into the spiritual world. This is all a preparation for the day when the physical body dies and the “yuan-shen is liberated and is once again merged with the undifferentiated energy of the Tao.”[3]

Cycles, Ages and the Ultimate State of the Universe

Taoism: Taoism embraces the concept of an unending number of kalpas (ages) and an infinite number of creations (yang) and dissolutions (yin) of the universe. Furthermore, there are four primary cycles associated with the Chinese calendar: the Sexagenary Cycle (60 years), the Three Eras (each era is 60 years long), the Nine Cycles (20 years each), and the 24 seasonal markers (two to each month). Note that in 180 years there are, therefore, Three Eras (60 years each) and Nine Cycles (20 years each).

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